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ABSTRACT
In 2013, a mass hunger strike took place in Guantanamo Bay as a response to the indefinite detention and unjust treatment of prisoners captured during the ‘war on terror’. In response, the US used force-feeding against the hunger strikers, arguing it was needed to save their lives and uphold US security. Although the US argued its force-feeding policy was legal and humane, human rights and medical organisations criticised US force-feeding practices as constituting torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. This article argues that the US undermined international human rights norms, laws and medical ethics in its management of hunger striking prisoners by using force-feeding to suppress hunger strikers and achieve national security interests. In doing so, the Obama administration reignited accusations of US torture and harmed its ethical standing in international society. The article argues that the US needs to incorporate international human rights standards into its hunger striker policy to uphold the dignity of prisoners in detention and overcome its legacy of torture in the ‘war on terror’.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the editors of The International Journal of Human Rights and several anonymous reviewers for their helpful and constructive comments.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Dr Jamal Barnes is an Adjunct Lecturer at Edith Cowan University, at Edith Cowan University, and a Lecturer at the University of Notre Dame, Perth, Western Australia. Barnes is the author of the book, A Genealogy of the Torture Taboo (Routledge 2017), which examines the normative development of the torture taboo and the role the taboo plays in international society. His research interests include torture, human rights, international relations theory, and counterterrorism.
Notes
1. Paul Lewis, ‘Obama Admits CIA “Tortured Some Folks” but Stands by Brennan Over Spying’, The Guardian, August 2, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/01/obama-cia-torture-some-folks-brennan-spying.
2. White House, ‘Executive Order 13491 – Ensuring Lawful Interrogations’, January 22, 2009, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/EnsuringLawfulInterrogations.
3. United States Select Committee on Intelligence, The Senate Intelligence Committee Report on Torture (New York: Melville House, 2014).
4. Paul Lewis, ‘Senate Passes Torture Ban Despite Republican Opposition’, The Guardian, June 17, 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/law/2015/jun/16/senate-passes-torture-ban-republicans.
5. Human Rights Watch, No More Excuses: A Roadmap to Justice for CIA Torture, December 2016, https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/12/01/no-more-excuses/roadmap-justice-cia-torture.
6. See Jamal Barnes, A Genealogy of the Torture Taboo (Oxon: Routledge, 2017), 168–73.
7. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), Towards the Closure of Guantanamo (2015), 65.
8. Ibid., 66.
9. ‘WMA Declaration of Malta: A Background Paper on the Ethical Management of Hunger Strikes’, World Medical Journal 52, no. 2 (2006): 42.
10. Karen J. Greenberg and Joshua L. Dratel, eds., The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
11. Andrea Birdsall, ‘But We Don’t Call it “Torture”! Norm Contestation During the US “War on Terror”’, International Politics 53, no. 2 (2016): 176; Jamal Barnes, ‘The “War on Terror” and the Battle for The Definition of Torture’, International Relations 30, no. 1 (2016): 102; David Luban, ‘Liberalism, Torture, and the Ticking Bomb’, Virginia Law Review 91 (2005): 1425.
12. Sam Raphael, Crofton Black, Ruth Blakeley, and Steve Kostas, ‘Tracking Rendition Aircraft as a Way to Understand CIA Secret Detention and Torture in Europe’, The International Journal of Human Rights 20, no. 1 (2016): 78; Vincent Charles Keating, ‘The Anti-Torture Norm and Cooperation in the CIA Black Site Programme’, The International Journal of Human Rights 20, no. 7 (2016): 935; James D. Boys, ‘What’s so Extraordinary about Rendition?’, The International Journal of Human Rights 15, no. 4 (2011): 589; Jamal Barnes, ‘Black Sites, “Extraordinary Renditions” and the Legitimacy of the Torture Taboo’, International Politics 53, no. 2 (2016): 198; Margaret L. Satterthwaite, ‘Rendered Meaningless: Extraordinary Rendition and the Rule of Law’, The George Washington Law Review 75, no. 5/6 (2007): 1333.
13. Steven H. Miles, Oath Betrayed: America’s Torture Doctors (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).
14. See for example, George J. Annas, ‘Hunger Strikes at Guantanamo – Medical Ethics and Human Rights in a “Legal Black Hole”’, The New England Journal of Medicine 355, no. 13 (2006): 1377; George J. Annas, Sondra S. Crosby, and Leonard H. Glantz, ‘Guantanamo Bay: A Medical Ethics – Free Zone’, The New England Journal of Medicine 369, no. 2 (2013): 101; Edmund Howe et al., ‘Guantanamo: Ethics, Interrogation, and Forced Feeding’, Military Ethics 174, no. 1 (2009): iv; Leonard S. Rubenstein and George J. Annas, ‘Medical Ethics at Guantanamo Bay Detention Centre and in the US military: A Time for Reform’, Lancet 374 (2009): 353; Hernan Reyes, Scott A. Allen, and George J. Annas, ‘Physicians and Hunger Strikes in Prison: Confrontation, Manipulation, Medicalization and Medical Ethics (Part 1)’, World Medical Journal 59, no. 1 (2013): 27; Hernan Reyes, Scott A. Allen, and George J. Annas, ‘Physicians and Hunger Strikes in Prison: Confrontation, Manipulation, Medicalization and Medical Ethics (Part 2)’, World Medical Journal 59, no. 2 (2013): 60; Hernan Reyes, Scott A. Allen, and George J. Annas, ‘Physicians and Hunger Strikes in Prison: Confrontation, Manipulation, Medicalization and Medical Ethics (Part 3)’, World Medical Journal 59, no. 3 (2013): 97.
15. Stephen J. Scanlan, Laurie Cooper Stoll, and Kimberly Lumm, ‘Starving for Change: The Hunger Strike and Nonviolent Action, 1906–2004’, Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 28 (2008): 275.
16. See Scanlan, Stoll, and Lumm, ‘Starving for Change’.
17. Charlie Savage, ‘Military is Waiting Longer Before Force-Feeding Hunger Strikers, Detainees Say’, The New York Times, October 11, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/11/us/politics/guantanamo-hunger-strikes-force-feeding.html.
18. David Iaconangelo, ‘What’s Next for the Prison at Guantánamo?’, The Christian Science Monitor, March 10, 2017, http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Justice/2017/0310/What-s-next-for-the-prison-at-Guantanamo.
19. Ibid.
20. Scanlan, Stoll, and Lumm, ‘Starving for Change’.
21. ‘WMA Background Paper’, 36.
22. For an analysis on how US courts have dealt with the relationship between hunger striking in prison and freedom of expression rights under the First Amendment of the US Constitution, see D. Sneed and H. Stonecipher, ‘Prisoner Fasting as Symbolic Speech: The Ultimate Speech-Action Test’, Howard Law Journal 32 (1989): 549–62; Joel K. Greenberg, ‘Hunger Striking Prisoners: The Constitutionality of Force-Feeding’, Fordham Law Review 51, no. 4 (1983): 747; Barry K. Tagawa, ‘Prisoner Hunger Strikes: Constitutional Protection for a Fundamental Rights’, American Criminal Law Review 20 (1982–1983): 569.
23. Scanlan, Stoll, and Lumm, ‘Starving for Change’.
24. Reyes, Allen, and Annas, ‘Physicians and Hunger Strikes (Part 1)’, 30.
25. Detainees in detention have also engaged in lip-sewing as a means of resistance. See Jenny Edkins and Véronique Pin-Fat, ‘Through the Wire: Relations of Power and Relations of Violence’, Millennium: Journal of International Studies 34, no. 1 (2005): 1; Patricia Owens, ‘Reclaiming “Bare Life”?: Against Agamben on Refugees’, International Relations 23, no. 4 (2009): 567.
26. Kandida Purnell, ‘Body Politics and Boundary Work: Nobodies on Hunger Strike at Guantánamo (2013–2015)’, Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 39, no. 4: 271.
27. This is similar to the purposes of lipsewing. See Owens, ‘Reclaiming “Bare Life”’; on hunger strikes, see Scanlan, Stoll, and Lumm, ‘Starving for Change’, 311.
28. IACHR, Closure of Guantanamo, 67.
29. See Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press), 67–99.
30. See Lauren B. Wilcox, Bodies of Violence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
31. The Institute on Medicine as a Profession and The Open Society Foundations (IMAP/OSF), Ethics Abandoned: Medical Professionalism and Detainee Abuse in the ‘War on Terror’, November, 2013, 85, http://imapny.org/wp-content/themes/imapny/File%20Library/Documents/IMAP-EthicsTextFinal2.pdf.
32. IMAP/OSF, Ethics Abandoned, 85–6.
33. ‘Palestinian Hunger Strike Deal Reached’, Al Jazeera, May 16, 2012, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/05/2012514153120630951.html.
34. Sarah Whyte, Michael Gordon, ‘Hunger Strike by Asylum Seekers at Manus Island Detention Centre Escalates Protest’, Sydney Morning Herald, January 14, 2015, http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/hunger-strike-by-asylum-seekers--at--manus-island-detention-centre-escalates-protest-20150114-12o0h9.html.
35. See Ian Miller, A History of Force Feeding: Hunger Strikes, Prisons and Medical Ethics 1909–1974 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).
36. Nigel S. Rodley with Matt Pollard, The Treatment of Prisoners Under International Law, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 419.
37. I use assisted and artificial feeding interchangeably in this article.
38. See World Medical Association (WMA), ‘WMA Declaration of Malta on Hunger Strikers’, revised by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006, Principle 2.
39. See George J. Annas and Michael A. Grodin, eds., The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremburg Code: Human Rights in Human Experimentation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
40. See WMA, ‘Declaration of Malta’.
41. See Miller, Force-Feeding.
42. Leigh v Gladstone (1909) 26 TLR 139. See also John Williams, ‘Hunger-Strikes: A Prisoner’s Right or a “Wicked Folly”?’, The Howard Journal 40, no. 3 (2001): 287–8.
43. See Williams, ‘Hunger-Strikes’, 287–90.
44. See Ruth Levush, ‘Israel: Law Authorizing Force-Feeding of Prisoners Held Constitutional’, Global Legal Monitor, The Library of Congress, October 5, 2016, http://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/israel-law-authorizing-force-feeding-of-prisoners-held-constitutional/.
45. See Tristan G. Greek, ‘Starving for Freedom: An Exploration of Australian Government Policies, Human Rights Obligations and Righting the Wrong for those Seeking Asylum’, The International Journal of Human Rights 18, no. 4–5: 479.
46. see Nevmerzhitsky v. Ukraine, European Court of Human Rights, no. 54825/00, 5 April, 2005; Ciorap v. Moldova, European Court of Human Rights, no. 12066/02, 19 June, 2007.
47. Mara Silver, ‘Testing “Cruzan”: Prisoners and the Constitutional Question of Self-Starvation’, Stanford Law Review 58, no. 2 (2005): 656–61.
48. Ibid., 648.
49. See Greenberg, ‘Hunger Striking’; Silver, ‘Testing “Cruzan”’; Tagawa, ‘Prisoner Hunger Strikes’.
50. Silver, ‘Testing “Cruzan”’, 643.
51. See Miller, Force Feeding, 2.
52. WMA, ‘Declaration of Malta’, Guideline 11.
53. World Medical Association, ‘WMA Declaration of Tokyo – Guidelines for Physicians Concerning Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in Relation to Detention and Imprisonment’, revised by the 67th WMA General Assembly, Taipei, Taiwan, October 2016, Principle 8.
54. See Annas, ‘Hunger Strikes at Guantanamo’, 1379. See also WMA, ‘Declaration of Malta’, Guideline 1.
55. ‘WMA Background Paper’, 37.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid., 36.
58. WMA, ‘Declaration of Malta’, Guideline 2.
59. N.Y. Oguz and S.H. Miles, ‘The Physician and Prison Hunger Strikes: Reflecting on the Experience in Turkey’, Journal of Medical Ethics 31 (2005): 169, 171.
60. WMA, ‘Declaration of Malta’, Guideline 9.
61. See Nevmerzhitsky v. Ukraine.
62. United Nations Economic and Social Council (UN ECOSOC), Situation of Detainees at Guantánamo Bay, February 27, 2006, 24, doc. no. E/CN.4/2006/120, 35.
63. Cochav Elkayam-Levy, ‘Facing the Human Rights Challenges of Prisoners’ and Detainees’ Hunger Strikes at the Domestic Level: Guidance for Policy-Makers, Government Officials, and Legal Advisors in the Management of Hunger Strikes’, Harvard Journal of International Law 57 (September 2015): 39, http://www.harvardilj.org/2015/09/facing-the-human-rights-challenge-of-prisoners-and-detainees-hunger-strikes-at-the-domestic-level/.
64. Sarah M. Dougherty et al., ‘Hunger Strikers: Ethical and Legal Dimensions of Medical Complicity in Torture at Guantanamo Bay’, Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 28, no. 6 (2013): 2.
65. Miller, Force-Feeding, 44 and 35–66.
66. See article 7 of the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, General Assembly Resolution 2200A (XXI) 16 December, 1966, http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx.
67. On the absolute prohibition and non-derogable status of both torture and CIDTP, see Rodley and Pollard, Treatment of Prisoners. In terms of peremptory norms, Rodley and Pollard state ‘Peremptory norms … both bind all states and cannot be overridden or made subject to exception by treaty. Indeed, any treaty that conflicts with a peremptory norm at the time of its conclusion is void. Any serious breach of such a norm also carries special consequences: other states come under an obligation to cooperate to bring the breach to an end; no state may recognise the situation as lawful; no state may render aid or assistance in maintaining the situation’. Rodley with Pollard, Treatment of Prisoners, 65.
68. WMA, ‘Declaration of Tokyo’.
69. WMA Declaration of Hamburg concerning Support for Medical Doctors Refusing to Participate in, or to Condone, the Use of Torture or Other Forms of Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment, reaffirmed by the 176th WMA Council Session, Berlin, Germany, May 2007.
70. Nevmerzhitsky v. Ukraine, 34. See also Ciorap v. Moldova.
71. Nevmerzhitsky v. Ukraine, 33.
72. Ibid., 30, 33.
73. Reyes, Allen, and Annas, ‘Physicians and Hunger Strikes (Part 1)’, 32–4.
74. US Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Report on Torture, 5.
75. Ibid., 84.
76. Ibid., 107.
77. WMA, ‘Declaration of Malta’, Guideline 13.
78. Silver, ‘Testing “Cruzan”’, 637.
79. Miller, Force Feeding, 18–19.
80. Henry Shue, ‘Torture’, Philosophy & Public Affairs 7, no. 2 (1978): 124.
81. Rodley with Pollard, Treatment of Prisoners, 380–1.
82. United Nations General Assembly, ‘United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson Mandela Rules)’, Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 17 December, 2015, doc. no. A/RES/70/175.
83. See Andy Worthington, The Guantanamo Files: The Stories of the 774 Detainees in America’s Illegal Prison (London: Pluto Press, 2007), 271–2.
84. IMAP/OSF, Ethics Abandoned, 113; Kristine Huskey and Stephen N. Xanakis, ‘Hunger Strikes: Challenges to the Guantanamo Detainees Health Care Policy’, Whittier Law Review 30 (2009): 783.
85. This was disputed by Guantanamo officials. See Charlie Savage, ‘Despair Drives Guantánamo Detainees to Revolt’, New York Times, April 24, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/25/us/guantanamo-prison-revolt-driven-by-inmates-despair.html.
86. IACHR, Closure of Guantanamo, 65.
87. Savage, ‘Guantánamo Detainees’.
88. IACHR, Closure of Guantanamo, 65.
89. Ibid., 65.
90. Paul Harris, ‘Guantanamo “Not in the Best Interests of the American People”, Says Obama’, The Guardian, May 1, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/30/obama-guantanamo-hunger-strike-worsens.
91. Joint Task Force Guantanamo Bay (JTF GTMO), Cuba, Joint Medical Group, ‘Standard Operating Procedure: Medical Management of Detainees on Hunger Strike’, SOP NO: JTF-JMG #001, March 5, 2013, 2, http://humanrights.ucdavis.edu/projects/the-guantanamo-testimonials-project/testimonies/testimonies-of-standard-operating-procedures/hungerstrike_sop_2013.pdf.
92. Ibid., 2.
93. See George J. Annas, ‘Human Rights Outlaws: Nuremberg, Geneva, and the Global War on Terror’, Boston University Law Review 87 (2007): 455.
94. See Laurel E. Fletcher and Eric Stover with others, Guantánamo and Its Aftermath: U.S. Detention and Interrogation Practices and their Impact on Former Detainees, November 2008, 55, https://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/IHRLC/Guantanamo_and_Its_Aftermath.pdf.
95. IMAP/OSF, Ethics Abandoned, 102–3.
96. Ibid.,103.
97. JTF GTMO, ‘Standard Operating Procedure’, 1.
98. ‘The standard FCE team will include five trained security force personnel, a medical staff member, and a videographer’. See US Department of Defense, Review of Department Compliance with President’s Executive Order on Detainee Conditions of Confinement, 2009, 42, https://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/REVIEW_OF_DEPARTMENT_COMPLIANCE_WITH_PRESIDENTS_EXECUTIVE_ORDER_ON_DETAINEE_CONDITIONS_OF_CONFINEMENTa.pdf.
99. The Constitution Project, The Report of The Constitution Project’s Task Force on Detainee Treatment, 2013, 229.
100. Ibid., 228.
101. IMAP/OSF, Ethics Abandoned, 101.
102. IACHR, Closure of Guantanamo, 67.
103. Annas, ‘Human Rights Outlaws’, 447.
104. Jason Leopold, ‘Guantanamo Prisoners Get to Play Video Games in a Recliner – While Being Force-Fed’, Vice News, January 1, 2015, https://news.vice.com/article/guantanamo-prisoners-get-to-play-video-games-in-a-recliner-while-being-force-fed.
105. IMAP/OSF, Ethics Abandoned, 103.
106. Annas, ‘Hunger Strikes at Guantanamo’, 1381.
107. See Annas, ‘Human Rights Outlaws’.
108. Ed Pilkington, ‘Guantánamo Hunger-Strikers Endure “Water Cure” Torture, Federal Court Hears’, The Guardian, March 12, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/11/guantnamo-hunger-strike-water-cure-torture.
109. IACHR, Closure of Guantanamo, 70.
110. JTF GTMO, ‘Standard Operating Procedure’, 14.
111. Mark Townsend, ‘Letters Detail Punitive Tactics Used on Guantánamo Hunger Strikers’, The Guardian, October 12, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/12/us-military-stormed-hunger-striker-cell; Townsend, ‘US Steps Up’; Spencer Ackerman, ‘Guantánamo Hunger Strikers Accuse US of Manipulating Force-Feeding Data’, The Guardian, May 15, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/15/guantanamo-hunger-strikers-force-feeding.
112. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, ‘Force-feeding is Cruel and Inhuman – UN Experts Urge Israel not to Make it Legal’, June 25, 2014, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=14770&.
113. Othman Abdulraheem Mohammad, ‘Hunger Strike Poem’, in Poems from Guantánamo: The Detainees Speak, ed. Mark Falkoff (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2007), 52.
114. Samir Naji al Hasan Moqbel, ‘Gitmo is Killing Me’, New York Times, April 14, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/15/opinion/hunger-striking-at-guantanamo-bay.html.
115. The Constitution Project, Detainee Treatment, 230.
116. IMAP/OSF, Ethics Abandoned, 105.
117. Townsend, ‘US Steps Up’.
118. Jason Leopold, ‘Guantanamo Bay Officials Just Figured Out That Olive Oil Is a Terrible Lubricant’, Vice News, July 18, 2014, https://news.vice.com/article/guantanamo-bay-officials-just-figured-out-that-olive-oil-is-a-terrible-lubricant.
119. United States Bureau of Prisons, Department of Justice, ‘Subpart C – Use of Force and Application of Restraints on Inmates’, Code of Federal Regulations, 671, https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2008-title28-vol2/pdf/CFR-2008-title28-vol2-part552-subpartC.pdf.
120. Rubenstein and Annas, ‘Medical Ethics’.
121. Annas, ‘Hunger Strikes at Guantanamo’, 1379–80; U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP), ‘Program Statement, Subject: Hunger Strikes’, July 29, 2005, P5562.05, https://www.bop.gov/policy/progstat/5562_005.pdf.
122. Dougherty et al., ‘Hunger Strikers’, 2.
123. ‘Guantánamo Bay Prison Detainees Protest- Open Letter’, The Guardian, May 31, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2013/may/31/guantanamo-detainees-protest-letter.
124. WMA, ‘Declaration of Malta’, Principle 5.
125. Ibid., Principle 4.
126. UN ECOSOC, Situation of Detainees, 33.
127. Ryan Goodman, ‘The US Knows Force-Feeding Hunger Strikers at Guantánamo is illegal’, The Guardian, June 6, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jun/05/forcefeeding-hunger-strikers-guantanamo; International Committee of the Red Cross, Commentary of 1987 Protection of Persons, https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Comment.xsp?action=openDocument&documentId=67D8F6A27DB1CEA4C12563CD004306A3.
128. Goodman, ‘Force-Feeding’.
129. Ibid.
130. Aamer v Obama, United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit, decided February 11, 2014, http://www.leagle.com/decision/In%20FCO%2020140211135.
131. Dhiab v. Obama, United States District Court, District of Columbia, Civil Action 05-1457 (GK), signed November 7, 2014, http://www.leagle.com/decision/In%20FDCO%2020141110697.
132. Ibid.
133. ‘Guantanamo Detainees’ Hunger Strikes Will no Longer be Disclosed by U.S. Military’, The Washington Post, December 4, 2013, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/guantanamo-detainees-hunger-strikes-will-no-longer-be-disclosed-by-us-military/2013/12/04/f6b1aa96-5d24-11e3-bc56-c6ca94801fac_story.html?utm_term=.e17ebf596e8a.
134. Purnell, ‘Body Politics’, 280.
135. Jason Leopold, ‘The Military Admitted Force-Feeding Gitmo Detainees Violates International Law and Medical Ethics’, Vice News, January 30, 2015, https://news.vice.com/article/how-a-military-memo-could-save-the-nurse-who-refused-to-force-feed-guantanamo-detainees.
136. Purnell, ‘Body Politics’.
137. Barnes, A Genealogy, 165–73.
138. See Ruti Teitel, Humanity’s Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); Ian Clark, Legitimacy in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
139. See Barnes, A Genealogy.
140. See Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (New York: Cornell University Press, 1998).
141. UN ECOSOC, Situation of detainees, 34–6; Organization of American States, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, ‘Press Release’, May 1, 2013, http://www.oas.org/en/iachr/media_center/preleases/2013/029.asp.
142. Ibid., 35.
143. United Nations Committee against Torture, ‘Concluding Observations on the Combined Third to Fifth Periodic Reports of the United States of America’, 19 December, 2014, 6–7, doc. no. CAT/C/USA/CO/3-5.
144. Letter from Jeremy A. Lazarus, MD, President of the American Medical Association, to Secretary of Defense, The Honorable Chuck Hagel, April 25, 2013, http://humanrights.ucdavis.edu/reports/folder-2013-guantanamo-hunger-strike/AMA%20Hunger%20Strikes%20Letter.pdf.
145. Letter from Diane Feinstein, Chairman of the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, to Secretary of Defense, the Honorable Chuck Hagel, June 19, 2013, https://www.feinstein.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/press-releases?ID=8AF43B52-0301-42B9-8F72-27F88997BD39.
146. Frank Arnold et al., ‘Open Letter to President Obama on Hunger Strikes in Guantanamo’, The Lancet 381, (June 22, 2013). This follows on from a 2006 letter from 256 doctors condemning force-feeding in Guantanamo Bay. See David J. Nicholl et al., ‘Forcefeeding and Restraint of Guantanamo Bay Hunger Strikers’, The Lancet 367 (March 11, 2006).
147. ‘Guantanamo Nurse Refuses to Force-Feed Prisoners’, The Guardian, July 16, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/16/guantanamo-nurse-refuses-force-feed-prisoners.
148. The White House, ‘Remarks by the President at the National Defense University’, National Defense University, Fort McNair, Washington DC, May 23, 2013, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/05/23/remarks-president-national-defense-university.
149. Dhiab v. Trump, United States Court of Appeals, District Court of Columbia, decided March 31, 2017, http://www.leagle.com/decision/In%20FCO%2020170331229/DHIAB%20v.%20TRUMP.
150. Dhiab v. Trump, March 31, 2017.
151. Ibid.
152. Whether Dhiab’s videotapes should have been released is a complex legal question concerning the right of the executive to withhold from public view sensitive and classified material and the public’s right to access the tapes. As such, determining whether the videotapes should have been released go beyond the scope of this paper. See the ruling in Dhiab v. Trump, March 31, 2017. See also ‘Dhiab v. Trump’, Harvard Law Review 131, no. 3 (January 2018), https://harvardlawreview.org/2018/01/dhiab-v-trump/.
153. IACHR, Closure of Guantanamo, 70.
154. See Spencer Ackerman, ‘Obama to Leave Office with More than 40 Detainees Still in Guantánamo Bay’, The Guardian, January 19, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jan/18/guantanamo-bay-detainees-obama-final-transfers.
155. Joel Greenberg, ‘Netanyahu Seeks Law to Allow Force-Feeding of Hunger Strikers’, McClatchy DC Bureau, June 9, 2014, http://www.mcclatchydc.com/news/nation-world/world/article24768685.html; Levush, ‘Law Authorizing Force-Feeding’.
156. Elkayam-Levy, ‘Human Rights’, 41.
157. Silver, ‘Testing “Cruzan”’, 639–40.
158. Reyes, Allen, and Annas, ‘Physicians and Hunger Strikes (Part 1)’, 33–4.
159. Ibid., 34.
160. Ibid., 36.
161. Ibid., 34.
162. See Dhiab v. Obama, United States District Court, District of Columbia, Civil Action No. 05-1457 (GK), November 7, 2014. Dhiab lost his case that sought to challenge his force-feeding. Although he launched an appeal, US authorities subsequently released him to Uruguay, making his appeal moot. See Matt Zapotosky, ‘Gitmo Detainee Appeals Judge’s Ruling on Force-Feeding’, The Washington Post, November 11, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/gitmo-detainee-appeals-judges-ruling-on-force-feeding/2014/11/11/1a37386e-69b8-11e4-a31c-77759fc1eacc_story.html?utm_term=.016efea0b7d3 and Adam Goldman, ‘Six Guantanamo Detainees Transferred to Uruguay as Obama Works to Close Prison’, The Washington Post, December 7, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/six-guantanamo-detainees-transferred-to-uruguay-as-obama-works-to-close-prison/2014/12/07/18f8ca3c-7c03-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html?utm_term=.c5cf67967261.
163. UN ECOSOC, Situation of Detainees, 33–4.
164. Martha Finnemore, ‘International Organizations as Teachers of Norms: The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and Science Policy’, International Organization 47, no. 4 (1993): 565.