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ABSTRACT
This article analyses the journey of the so-called Izieu telegram – a telegram sent by Nazi perpetrator Klaus Barbie to report the raid of a Jewish children’s home in France to his superiors – from its creation to its use in multiple transitional justice mechanisms, including an international military tribunal, domestic trials in France, and various memorialisation projects. In doing so we apply the concepts of activation and the records continuum approach, both borrowed from archival studies scholarship, to analyse how an individual record becomes continuously recontextualised through its use in transitional justice processes and in the process contributes to those same processes. We conclude by highlighting both the benefits of bringing archival concepts into dialogue with transitional justice scholarship and practice, and the tensions inherent in that endeavour.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the editors of the Special Issue and the anonymous reviewer for their critical reviews of earlier versions of this article. We would also like to thank the archivists of the Mémorial de la Shoah, the Rhône State Archives and the French National Archives for their support in the research process for this article.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes on contributors
Ulrike Lühe is a PhD candidate at the University of Basel and a researcher and program officer at the Dealing with the Past program of swisspeace. Her PhD research focuses on the politics of knowledge production and in particular the role and conceptualisation of expertise in the development of the African Union Transitional Justice Policy. She also conducts research on corporate symbolic reparations as contributions to transitional justice. At swisspeace her work focuses on archives and dealing with the past, as well as conflict prevention and early warning. She holds an MPhil degree in Justice and Transformation from the University of Cape Town.
Romain Ledauphin is a program officer at the Dealing with the Past Program of swisspeace and an archivist. He holds an MA in History, Preservation and Documentation of image and sound from the Université Paris-Est Créteil (2009), a BA in History and Political Science from Université Rennes 2 (2007). He worked as an archivist at the United Nations Secretariat Archives, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals and at the Committee on Missing Person in Cyprus. He now supports Dealing with the Past Initiatives in the set-up of records and archives management programs.
Notes
1 E.g. the Rule-of-Law-Tools for Post-Conflict States on ‘Archives’ by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) or the Human Rights Documentation Toolkit (http://www.hrdtoolkit.org/project-methodology/ accessed June 23, 2020).
2 E.g. HURIDOCS (https://huridocs.org/), the Witness Media Lab (https://lab.witness.org/) or the Amnesty International Citizen Evidence Lab (https://citizenevidence.org/).
3 E.g. the University of Barcelona Specialization Course in ‘Archives for Human Rights, Gender and Diversity’ (https://www.uab.cat/web/postgrau/curs-en-arxius-dels-drets-humans-genere-i-diversitat/informacio-general-1201094877538.html/param1-4278_ca/param2-2009/; accessed June 23, 2020) or the swisspeace course ‘Documenting and Archiving from a “Dealing with the Past” Perspective’ (https://www.swisspeace.ch/continuing-education/postgraduate-courses/documenting-and-archiving-from-a-dealing-with-the-past-perspective; accessed June 23, 2020).
4 https://iiim.un.org/terms-of-reference-of-iiim/ (accessed June 12, 2020).
5 https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoHSouthSudan/Pages/Index.aspx (accessed June 12, 2020).
6 https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/IIMM/Pages/Index.aspx (accessed June 12, 2020).
7 Thomas Reynolds, ‘Highest Aspirations or Barbarous Acts. The Explosion in Human Rights Documentation: A Bibliographic Survey’, Law Library Journal 71 (1978): 1–48.
8 Graham Stinnett, ‘Archival Landscape. Archives and Human Rights’, Progressive Librarian 32 (2009): 10.
9 Ibid.
10 See e.g. Brianne McGonigle Leyh, ‘Changing Landscapes in Documentation Efforts: Civil Society Documentation of Serious Human Rights Violations’, Utrecht Journal of International and European Law 33, no. 84 (2017): 44–58; Pilar Riaño-Alcalá and Erin Baines, ‘The Archive in the Witness: Documentation in Settings of Chronic Insecurity’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 5, no. 3 (2011): 412–433; Gossman, ‘Documentation and Transitional Justice in Africa’, United States Institute of Peace (2013).
11 Nesmith in Eric Ketelaar, ‘Tacit Narratives: The Meanings of Archives’, Archival Science 1, no. 2 (2001): 132.
12 Ibid., 132.
13 Kerstin von Lingen, ‘A Morality of Evil: Nazi Ethics and the Defense Strategies of German Perpetrators’, in Rethinking Holocaust Justice. Essays Across Disciplines, ed. Norman Goda (New York: Berghahn Books, 2018), 84.
14 Before being moved to France, Barbie was stationed in the Netherlands from 1940 to 1941. From 1942 he was based in France, first in Gex and then in Lyon which at the time had developed into a centre of resistance.
Peter McFarren and Fadrique Iglesias, The Devil's Agent: Life, Times and Crimes of Nazi Klaus Barbie (Xlibris Cooperation, 2013), 29; Lingen, ‘A Morality of Evil’; Karin Urselmann, Die Bedeutung des Barbie-Prozesses für die Französische Vergangenheitsbewältigung (Frankfurt/M., Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien: Peter Lang, 2000).
15 Urselmann, Die Bedeutung des Barbie-Prozesses für die Französische Vergangenheitsbewältigung.
16 Lingen, ‘A Morality of Evil’, 109.
17 Guyora Binder, ‘Representing Nazism: Advocacy and Identity at the Trial of Klaus Barbie’, The Yale Law Journal 98 (1989): 1323.
18 Michael Piggott and Sue McKemmish, ‘Recordkeeping, Reconciliation and Political Reality’ (paper presented at the Australian Society of Archivists Annual Conference, Sydney, Australia, August 13–17, 2002), 8.
19 Michelle Caswell, Archiving the Unspeakable: Silence, Memory, and the Photographic Record in Cambodia (Wisconsin, London: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2014), 3–4.
20 Caswell, Archiving the Unspeakable, 16.
21 Ibid., 17.
22 Ketelaar, ‘Tacit Narratives’, 137. As each reference to a record can be seen as an activation (Noah Geraci and Michelle Caswell, ‘Developing a Typology of Human Rights Records’, Journal of Contemporary Archival Studies 3, no. 1 (2016)) this article in itself is an activation of the record for the purpose of understanding the historical significance of human rights documentation and the attempt to contribute to improving transitional justice practice.
23 Frank Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum as Paradigm Shift in Recordkeeping and Archiving Processes, and Beyond’, Records Management Journal 10, no. 3 (2000): 115–139. Eric Ketelaar, ‘Cultivating Archives: Meanings and Identities', Archival Science 12, no. 1 (2012): 19–33.
24 Jay Atherton, ‘From Life Cycle to Continuum: Some Thoughts on the Records Management - Archives Relationship’, Archivaria 21 (1985): 43–51.
25 Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum’, 118.
26 Caswell, Archiving the Unspeakable.
27 Frank Upward, Sue McKemmish and Barbara Reed, ‘Archivists and Changing Social and Information Spaces: A Continuum Approach to Recordkeeping and Archiving in Online Cultures’, Archivaria 72 (2011): 199.
28 Sue McKemmish, ‘Are Records Ever Actual?’ in The Records Continuum: Ian Maclean and Australian Archives First Fifty Years, eds. Michael Piggott and Sue McKemmish (Clayton: Ancora, 1994), 200.
29 Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum’, 121.
30 Ibid., 121.
31 Ibid., 122.
32 Ibid., 122.
33 Eric Ketelaar, ‘Recordkeeping and Societal Power’, in Archives: Recordkeeping in Society, eds. Sue McKemmish, Michael Piggott, Barbara Reed and Frank Upward (Wagga-Wagga: Charles Sturt University, 2005).
34 McKemmish, ‘Placing Records Continuum Theory and Practice’, Archival Science 1, no. 4 (2001): 335.
35 Caswell, Archiving the Unspeakable, 14.
36 Lorraine Dong, et al., ‘Examinations of Injustice: Methods for Studying Archives in a Human Rights Context’, in Research in the Archival Multiverse, eds. Anne Gilliland, Sue McKemmish and Andrew Law (Clayton: Monash University Publishing, 2017).
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid., 947.
39 Ibid., 947.
40 Otto Abetz was the German ambassador to Vichy France. He was captured by Allied forces in October 1945 and tried and sentenced for crimes against humanity in France in 1949. In his trial the telegram was meant to prove what crimes were being committed against the Jews under Abetz’s time in office. However the judge did not use the record as he saw no direct link between Abetz’s activities in 1944 and the actions of the Gestapo in Lyon. See Serge Klarsfeld and Beate Klarsfeld, ‘Die Kinder von Izieu: Eine jödische Tragödie’ (Berlin: Edition Hentrich, 1991).
41 https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-jewish-history-and-culture/center-of-contemporary-jewish-documentation-COM_0134 (accessed June 13, 2020).
42 Laura Jockusch, Collect and Record! Jewish Holocaust Documentation in Early Postwar Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).
43 Simon Dubnow, ‘Nahpesa ve-nahkorah’, (1892) cited in Jockusch, Collect and record!, 20.
44 Now Wiener library in London.
45 Jockusch, Collect and record!, ix.
46 Archives of the Central Consistory during the war, collected by Maurice Moch, and deposited at the Universal Israelite Alliance Library (AIU, CC) 4, cited in Poznanski Renée, ‘La Création du Centre de Documentation Juive Contemporaine en France (Avril 1943)’, Vingtième Siècle: Revue d’Histoire 63 (1999): 51–63, translated by authors.
47 CDJC, ‘La persécution des juifs en France et dans les autres pays de l’Ouest, présentée par la France à Nuremberg : Recueil de documents’, Editions du Centre (1947): 70, translated by authors.
48 Leah Wolfson, Jewish Responses to Persecution: 1944–1946 (Volume V) (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), 506.
49 A major paramilitary organisation under Hitler’s rule.
50 https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-jewish-history-and-culture/center-of-contemporary-jewish-documentation-COM_0134 (accessed June 13, 2020).
51 Intelligence agency of the SS and the Nazi party.
52 ‘Der Befehlshaber der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD. Im Bereich des Militärbefehlshabers in Frankreich’.
53 Abbreviation of ‘Geheime Staatspolizei’, the Third Reich Secret State Police.
54 Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum’; Geraci and Caswell, ‘Developing a Typology’.
55 McKemmish, ‘Placing Records’, 352.
56 Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum’.
57 Antonio González Quintana, ‘Archives of the Security Services of Former Repressive Regimes’, UNESCO Report, Paris, 1997: 5. See also Sue McKemmish, ‘Recordkeeping in the Continuum’, in Research in the Archival Multiverse, eds. Anne Gilliland, Sue McKemmish and Andrew Law (Clayton: Monash University Publishing, 2017).
58 Geraci and Caswell, ‘Developing a Typology’.
59 Piggott and McKemmish, ‘Recordkeeping, Reconciliation and Political Reality’, 3.
60 Joan M. Schwartz and Terry Cook, ‘Archives, Records, and Power: The Making of Modern Memory’, Archival Science 2, no. 1 (2002): 4.
61 Klarsfeld and Klarsfeld, Die Kinder von Izieu.
62 Erna Paris, Unhealed Wounds: France and the Klaus Barbie Affaire (New York: Grove Press, 1986), 211.
63 Ibid., 216.
64 Ketelaar, ‘Recordkeeping and Societal Power’, 285.
65 Ibid., 286.
66 Verne Harris, ‘Antonyms of our Remembering’, Archival Science 14, no. 3 (2014): 215–29.
67 Albert Breton and Ronald Wintrobe, ‘The Bureaucracy of Murder Revisited’, Journal of Political Economy 94, no. 5 (1986): 905–26. Referenced in Ketelaar, ‘Recordkeeping and Societal Power’, 288.
68 James O'Toole, ‘The Symbolic Significance of Archives’, The American Archivist 56, no. 2 (1993): 55.
69 Stacy Wood, et al., ‘Mobilizing Records: Re-Framing Archival Description to Support Human Rights’, Archival Science 14, no. 3 (2014): 397–419.
70 See e.g. International Military Tribunal reference RF1235, found in Klaus Barbie trial archival fond. 4544W26 item 43, Answer from International Court of Justice Registrar, Santiago Torres Bernardez to Serge Klarsfeld, 14th March 1983, translated by the authors.
71 Lucien Steinberg, Les autorités allemandes en France Occupée. Inventaire commenté de la collection de documents conservés au CDJC (CDJC Éditions Polyglottes, 1966), 18.
72 Klarsfeld and Klarsfeld, Die Kinder von Izieu, 127.
73 International Military Tribunal reference RF1235, found in Klaus Barbie trial archival fond. 4544W26 item 43, Answer from International Court of Justice Registrar, Santiago Torres Bernardez to Serge Klarsfeld, 14th March 1983, translated by the authors.
74 Item 44 attached to IMT RF1235, Telegram from Security Police Commander in relation with a Jewish children orphanage in Izieu, Ain (RF1051).
75 CDJC, ‘La persécution des juifs en France et dans les autres pays de l’Ouest’, 20.
76 This was not unique to the CDJC as in liberated Paris in the direct aftermath of the Second World War, parts of the responsibility of recovering, collecting and preserving potential pieces of evidence was taken on by Jewish activists.
77 Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum’.
78 Ketelaar, ‘Tacit Narratives’, 133.
79 Archives of the Central Consistory during the war, collected by Maurice Moch, and deposited at the Universal Israelite Alliance Library (AIU, CC) 4, cited in Poznanski Renée, ‘La Création du Centre de Documentation Juive Contemporaine en France (Avril 1943)’, Vingtième Siècle: Revue d'Histoire 63 (1999): 51–63, translated by the authors.
80 Brien Brothman, ‘The Past that Archives Keep. Memory, History, and the Preservation of Archival Records’, Archivaria 51, no. 1 (2001): 48–80.
81 Eric Ketelaar, ‘Archives as Spaces of Memory’, Journal of the Society of Archivists 29, no. 1 (2006): 14.
82 Jacques Derrida and Eric Prenowitz, ‘Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression', Diacritics 25, no. 2 (1995): 18.
83 https://dictionary.archivists.org/entry/provenance.html (accessed June 11, 2020).
84 Personal communication with Head of the Archives Department of the Mémorial de la Shoa, 19 December 2018. See also Steinberg, Les autorités allemandes.
85 Dong et al., ‘Examinations of Injustice’, 960.
86 Ibid., 960.
87 Ibid., 960 referring to Margaret Hedstrom, ‘Archives, Memory, and Interfaces with the Past’, Archival Science 2 (2002): 21.
88 McKemmish, ‘Placing Records Continuum’, 352; Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum’.
89 Ketelaar, ‘Archives as Spaces of Memory’.
90 Das Telegram “wurde vom International Militärgerichtshof als ‘Exhibit’ zurückgehalten, d.h. es wurde als für die Prozessführung verwendbar ausgesondert. Infolgedessen erhielt es die Signatur RF1235” (Klarsfeld and Klarsfeld, Die Kinder von Izieu, 127).
91 Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum’.
92 https://www.memorializieu.eu/en/the-memorial/justice-from-nuremberg-to-the-hague-trying-criminals/ (accessed May 16, 2020).
93 Other authoritative records were of course created in due course. In the years following the end of the Holocaust and the Second World War, the narrative created by the Nuremberg tribunal was however considered one of the most comprehensive and authoritative ones.
94 Norman Goda, ‘Introduction’, in Rethinking Holocaust Justice. Essays Across Disciplines (Berghahn Books, 2018), 1.
95 Klarsfeld and Klarsfeld, Die Kinder von Izieu.
96 The International Court in The Hague has a certified and identical copy of the record under the signature H-4826 (Klarsfeld and Klarsfeld, Die Kinder von Izieu).
97 Beate Klarsfeld and Serge Klarsfeld, Mémoires (Flammarion, 2015).
98 ‘La persécution des juifs en France et dans les autres pays de l’Ouest, présentée par la France à Nuremberg: Recueil de documents’, CDJC, Editions du Centre, Paris, 1947.
99 Dong et al., ‘Examinations of Injustice’.
100 Simon Perego, ‘Du CDJC au Centre de Documentation du Mémorial de la Shoah, 1943–2013: Documenter le Génocide des Juifs d’Europe’, Histoire@Politique. Politique, Culture, Société 22 (2014).
101 Klarsfeld and Klarsfeld, Mémoires.
102 Paris, Unhealed Wounds.
103 Urselmann, Die Bedeutung des Barbie-Prozesses für die Französische Vergangenheitsbewältigung.
104 Archives de la Cour d’assises du Rhône - Le procès de Klaus Barbie, 4544W13 item 53, 9 January 1984, translated by the authors.
105 Ibid., 4544W13 item 54, 19 January 1984, translated by the authors.
106 Wood et al., ‘Mobilizing Records’, 411.
107 Brothman, ‘The Past that Archives Keep’, 79.
108 Archives de la Cour d’assises du Rhône - Le procès de Klaus Barbie, 4544W13 item 58, Minutes of 5 March confrontation between Klaus Barbie, Claudine Cohen and Alexandre Halaunbrenner.
109 Lingen, ‘A Morality of Evil’.
110 Ibid., 113f.
111 Klarsfeld and Klarsfeld, Mémoires.
112 Ketelaar, ‘Archives as Spaces of Memory’, 13; Mark Osiel, Mass Atrocity, Collective Memory, and the Law (Routledge, 1999).
113 Binder, ‘Representing Nazism’, 1328.
114 Urselmann, Die Bedeutung des Barbie-Prozesses für die Französische Vergangenheitsbewältigung.
115 Binder, ‘Representing Nazism’.
116 Ketelaar, ‘Recordkeeping and Societal Power’.
117 Urselmann, Die Bedeutung des Barbie-Prozesses für die Französische Vergangenheitsbewältigung).
118 Judith Miller, One, by one, by one: Facing the Holocaust (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990).
119 Binder, ‘Representing Nazism’, 1357.
120 McKemmish, ‘Placing Records Continuum’, 352; Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum’.
121 Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum’.
122 McKemmish, ‘Placing Records Continuum’, 338.
123 Breton and Wintrobe, ‘The Bureaucracy of Murder Revisited’.
124 Caswell, Archiving the Unspeakable.
125 Ketelaar, ‘Tacit Narratives’.
126 Ibid., 138.
127 Binder, ‘Representing Nazism’.
128 Ibid., 1357.
129 Archives de la Cour d’assises du Rhône - Le procès de Klaus Barbie, 4544W19 item 448, Klaus Barbie complaint, 2 November 1983.
130 Ibid., 4544W26 item 62, Letter from S. Klarsfeld to Judge Riss, 13 May 1985.
131 Klarsfeld had requested the registrars of the ICJ and the National Archives in Washington DC, both of which host the IMT archives, to authenticate the telegram (4544W26 item 43, Letter from ICJ registrar, Santiago Torres Bernardez to S. Klarsfeld, 14 March 1983).
132 Klarsfeld and Klarsfeld, Mémoires.
133 Ketelaar, ‘Tacit Narratives’, 137.
134 https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn1004872 (accessed June 26, 2020).
135 Ibid.
136 Ketelaar, ‘Tacit Narratives’, 138.
137 Klarsfeld and Klarsfeld, Die Kinder von Izieu.
138 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Fifty Years Ago. Darkness Before Dawn (Washington: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 1994).
139 https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/childrens-homes/images/izieu/telegram.pdf (accessed June 11, 2020).
140 https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/childrens-homes/izieu/index.asp (acessed June 11, 2020).
141 The IMT archives have been discussed above.
142 http://www.internationalcrimesdatabase.org/Case/164/Barbie/ (accessed April 14, 2020).
143 Archives de la Cour d’assises du Rhône - Le procès de Klaus Barbie, ‘Inventory 4544W’, ‘Introduction, History of conservation’ (2012): 6.
144 Ordonnance n° 2004-178 du 20 février 2004 relative à la partie législative du code du patrimoine, article L-222.
145 Ibid.
146 “Le Procès Barbie” by Dominique Missika et Philippe Truffault - Coffret 6 DVD, accessed June 26, 2020.
147 Archives de la Cour d’assises du Rhône - Le procès de Klaus Barbie, ‘Inventory 4544W’.
148 Article L.213-2 ‘code du patrimoine’: the French law governing access to archives of criminal trials.
149 Reference to the 30 June 2017 derogation to Article L.213-2 ‘code du patrimoine’ for public archives related to Klaus Barbie Trial.
150 ‘Le procès Klaus Barbie. Lyon, 1987’ from 30 March to 15 October 2017, Mémorial de la Shoah, Paris.
151 ‘Mémoires d'un procès. Klaus Barbie 1987, un procès pour l'histoire’ from 15 September 2017 to 2 February 2018, Rhône State Archives, Lyon. Showing the importance and the reach of such a trial for the city of Lyon, this anniversary was also commemorated at the local level, by the town of Lyon which organised many cultural events with round tables, projections, etc. Moreover, within the scientific, cultural and educational programme of the National Archives, the strategy continues with the current digitisation of the transcripts which are expected to be available online in 2020. (Personal email exchange, on file with author, with Thomas Lebée, Responsable de fonds au pôle Justice at Archives Nationales on 17 September 2019).
152 Urselmann, Die Bedeutung des Barbie-Prozesses für die Französische Vergangenheitsbewältigung.
153 Archives of the Central Consistory during the war, collected by Maurice Moch, and deposited at the Universal Israelite Alliance Library (AIU, CC) 4, cited in Poznanski Renée, ‘La Création du Centre de Documentation Juive Contemporaine en France (Avril 1943)’, Vingtième Siècle: Revue d’Histoire. 63 (1999): 51–63, translated by authors.
154 Urselmann, Die Bedeutung des Barbie-Prozesses für die Französische Vergangenheitsbewältigung.
155 Dominique Jarrassé, ‘Jewish Heritage in France: Evaluation of Twenty Years Work and Protection’, European Judaism 34, no. 2 (2001): 39–54.
156 https://www.memorializieu.eu/en/who-are-we/aims/ (accessed June 26, 2020).
157 Jarrassé, ‘Jewish Heritage in France’, 46.
158 Brothman, ‘The Past that Archives Keep’, 52.
159 Ketelaar, ‘Archives as Spaces of Memory’, 10.
160 McKemmish, ‘Placing Records Continuum’, 352.
161 ‘Das Telegram erhielt seinen Platz in der Geschichte als Beweis einer Blutrünstigkeit, die an Intensität und an absolut Bösem die entfesselten Aktionen gegen die Résistance übertraf’ (Klarsfeld and Klarsfeld, Die Kinder von Izieu, 13).
162 Gëzim Visoka, ‘Arrested Truth: Transitional Justice and the Politics of Remembrance in Kosovo’, Journal of Human Rights Practice 8, no. 1 (2016): 62–80.
163 Marika Cifor; Michelle Caswell; Alda Allina Migoni and Noah Geraci, ‘What We Do Crosses over to Activism: The Politics and Practice of Community Archives', The Public Historian 40, no. 2 (2018): 69–95.
164 McKemmish, ‘Placing Records Continuum’, 336.
165 Schwartz and Cook, ‘Archives, Records, and Power’, 7.
166 Ibid., 7.
167 Michelle Caswell, ‘Defining Human Rights Archives: Introduction to the Special Double Issue on Archives and Human Rights’, Archival Science 14, no 3–4 (2014): 209.
168 Leyh, ‘Changing Landscapes in Documentation Efforts’.
169 International Council on Archives, Code of Ethics, para. 1, https://www.ica.org/en/ica-code-ethics (accessed June 26, 2020).
170 Laura Millar and Lee C. McIntyre, A Matter of Facts: The Value of Evidence in an Information Age (Chicago: ALA Neal-Schuman, 2019), 6.