Beyond evidence: the use of archives in transitional justice

ABSTRACT

Currently there is little systematic knowledge about the underlying processes of record creation, archive production and preservation or the usage of archives within transitional justice (TJ). In this introduction to the special issue on the use of archives in TJ, we identify four main areas in which gaps exist: methodological particularities in researching archives in TJ contexts; a deficit in our knowledge on the role of the archivist in the archival processes; an insufficient understanding of the relationship between human rights documentation, archives and justice endeavours which is oftentimes seen as per se furthering accountability; lastly and as a result, an insufficient conceptualisation of archives which are often regarded as storage of (objective) information and in TJ accordingly perceived as uncontested ‘evidence’. We conclude that human rights documentation and archives need to be studied in the contexts of both their creation and their use to understand their effects on TJ. Only if we deconstruct the inherent power dynamics, representations and voices, can we (a) reassemble them in a new transitional order that better supports the aims of TJ; and (b) acknowledge not only the emancipatory but also the limiting and marginalising powers that archives have during transition processes and beyond.

KEYWORDS:

• Human rights
• archives
• transitional justice
• violence
• knowledge production

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Romain Ledauphin and Richard Martin for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article. In addition, we are grateful to the participants of the ESRC-funded workshop ‘Atrocity's Archives: the Role of Archives in Transitional Justice' which took place in Oxford in spring 2018 for the fruitful discussions and for giving us the inspiration for this Special Issue. Lastly, we thank the authors in this Special Issue for their patience, dedication and their insightful contributions to the topic of archives in and for transitional justice.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes on contributors

Julia Viebach is a Departmental Lecturer in the African Studies Centre at the University of Oxford. Her work centres on violence, memory, trauma and transitional justice with a regional focus on post-genocide Rwanda. She is the curator of the award-winning Kwibuka Rwanda photographic exhibition and Traces of the Past installation showcased at Oxford's Pitt Rivers Museum. Currently she is leading the project ‘Memory Figurations' that explores diaspora memories of survivors of the 1994 Genocide living in the UK and the US.

Dagmar Hovestädt is the spokeswoman for the Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records (BStU) since 2011. She is in charge of international outreach and online communications of the Stasi Records Archive as well all communications relating to the person of the Federal Commissioner. Her early academic work centered around the analysis of media effects on society before she became a professional journalist for 20 years. Her renewed academic interest now focuses on the intersection of archives, dealing with the past and human rights.

Ulrike Lühe is a PhD candidate at the University of Basel and a researcher and program officer at the Dealing with the Past program of swisspeace. Her PhD research focuses on the politics of knowledge production and in particular the role and conceptualisation of expertise in the development of the African Union Transitional Justice Policy. She also conducts research on corporate symbolic reparations as contributions to transitional justice. At swisspeace her work focuses on archives and dealing with the past, as well as conflict prevention and early warning. She holds an MPhil degree in Justice and Transformation from the University of Cape Town.

Notes

1 A reference on the power of archives in relation to history as described by Joan M. Schwartz and Terry Cook, ‘Archives, Records, and Power: The Making of Modern Memory’, Archival Science 2 (2002): 13.

2 Jacques Derrida, Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1996). Those influenced by Derridian ideas on the archive are numerous, among them Verne Harris and Albie Sachs in South Africa, ‘Archives, Truth, and Reconciliation’, Archivaria 62 (2006): 1–14 or Joan Schwartz, ‘“Having New Eyes”: Spaces of Archives, Landscapes of Power', Archivaria 61 (2006): 1–25.

3 For a cursory look at the formation of transitional justice see: Neil J. Kritz, ed., Transitional Justice. How Emerging Democracies Reckon with Former Regimes, 3 vols. (Washington, DC: United States Institute for Peace Press, 1995); Ruti G. Teitel, Transitional Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Ruti G Teitel, ed., Globalizing Transitional Justice: Contemporary Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016) as well as some of the continued discussions about the field: Paige Arthur, ‘How “Transitions” Reshaped Human Rights: A Conceptual History of Transitional Justice’, Human Rights Quarterly 31 (2009): 321–67; Paul Gready and Simon Robins, ‘From Transitional to Transformative Justice: A New Agenda for Practice’, International Journal for Transitional Justice 8, no. 3 (2014): 339–61.

4 We thank Romain Ledauphin for pointing out that the archivists’ work and voice can/should extent into the world of records management as a tool to improve the quality of archival records, an issue in need of further exploration beyond the scope of this article.

5 The term is in and of itself a concept that archival science contends with, too. See Jennifer Meehan, ‘Towards an Archival Concept of Evidence’, Archivaria 61 (2002): 127–46.

6 Graham Stinnett, ‘Archival Landscape: Archives and Human Rights’, Progressive Librarian, A Journal for Critical Studies & Progressive Politics in Librarianship 32 (2009): 10–20.

7 Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A History (London: W.W. Norton & Company, 2007), cited in Stinnett, ‘Archival Landscape’, 10.

8 United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Rule-of-Law Tools For Post-Conflict States – Archives (New York and Geneva: United Nations, 2015), https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/HR_PUB_14_4_Archives_en.pdf (accessed 10 July 2020).

9 United Nations Economic and Social Council and Commission on Human Rights, Promotion and Protection of Human Rights: Impunity (New York, Geneva: United Nations, 2005), https://undocs.org/E/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1 (accessed 10 July 2020).

10 Trudy Huskamp Peterson, Final Acts: A Guide to Preserving Records of Truth Commissions (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2005); Louis Bickford et al., Documenting Truth (New York, NY: International Center for Transitional Justice, 2009).

11 Meehan, ‘Towards an Archival Concept of Evidence’; Schwartz and Cook, ‘Archives, Records, and Power’.

12 Michelle Caswell, Archiving the Unspeakable: Silence, Memory, and the Photographic Record in Cambodia (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2014); Kirsten Weld, Paper Cadavers: The Archives of Dictatorship in Guatemala (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014); Elisabeth Baumgartner et al., ‘Documentation, Human Rights and Transitional Justice’, Journal of Human Rights Practice 8, no. 1 (2016): 1–5; Daniela Accatino and Cath Collins, ‘Truth, Evidence, Truth: The Deployment of Testimony, Archives and Technical Data in Domestic Human Rights Trials’, Journal of Human Rights Practice 8, no. 1 (2016): 81–100.

13 They define them as ‘ … catalogues of written material systematically produced as part of a political contest between a government force and an armed challenger (either domestic or international) and later collected and preserved for public access’; Laia Balcells, and Christopher M. Sullivan, ‘New Findings from Conflict Archives: An Introduction and Methodological Framework’, Journal of Peace Research 55, no. 2 (2018): 137–46, 1.

14 Ibid, 2.

15 Ibid; Norah Geraci and Michelle Caswell, ‘Developing a Typology of Human Rights Records’, Journal of Contemporary Archival Studies 3, no. 1 (2016): 1–24; Lae'l Hughes-Watkins, ‘Moving Toward a Reparative Archive: A Roadmap for a Holistic Approach to Disrupting Homogenous Histories in Academic Repositories and Creating Inclusive Spaces for Marginalized Voices’, Journal of Contemporary Archival Studies 5, no. 6 (2018): 1–17.

16 ICA website: https://www.ica.org/en/what-archive (accessed 6 June 2020).

17 Ibid.

18 Ibid.

19 Antoinette Burton, ‘Introduction: Archive Fever, Archive Stories’, in Archive Stories: Facts, Fictions and the Writing of History, ed. Burton (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2006), 1–25, 3.

20 Ibid.

21 Verne Harris, ‘The Archival Sliver: Power, Memory, and Archives in South Africa’, Archival Science 2 (2002): 63–86; Laura Millar, ‘Touchstones: Considering the Relationship between Memory and Archives’, Archivaria 61 (2006): 105–26; Derrida, Archive Fever.

22 Ann Cvetkovich, An Archive of Feelings: Trauma, Sexuality, and Lesbian Public Cultures (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003).

23 Verne Harris, ‘Antonyms of Our Remembering’, Archival Science 14, no. 3–4 (2014): 215–29.

24 Terry Cook, ‘What is Past is Prologue: A History of Archival Ideas Since 1898, and the Future Paradigm Shift’, Archivaria 43 (1997): 17–63. The traditional notion of documents as evidence is an important concept for archivists with ‘explanatory’ and ‘normative’ power, see Meehan, ‘Towards an Archival Concept of Evidence’. But several authors have begun to examine its underpinnings, e.g. besides Meehan see Brian Brothman, ‘Afterglow: Conceptions of Record and Evidence in Archival Discourse’, Archival Science 2 (2002): 311–42; he calls into questions a too simple notion of evidence and opening the door to more complex ideas around archiving and the relationship of archivists and users with the record.

25 See e.g. Hughes-Watkins, ‘Toward a Reparative Archive’; Alexandrina Buchanan and Michelle Bastian, ‘Activating the Archive: Rethinking the Role of Traditional Archives for Local Activist Projects’, Archival Science 15, no. 4 (2015): 429–51.

26 See e.g. Caswell, Archiving the Unspeakable.

27 E.g. Stinnett, ‘Archival Landscape’; Randall C. Jimerson, Archives Power: Memory, Accountability, and Social Justice (Washington, DC: Society of American Archivists, 2009).

28 E.g. Hughes-Watkins, ‘Moving Toward a Reparative Archive’.

29 Schwartz and Cook, ‘Archives, Records, and Power’; Sandra Rubli and Briony Jones, Archives for a Peaceful Future (Bern: swisspeace Essential, 2013); Stacy Wood et al., ‘Mobilizing Records: Re-framing Archival Description to Support Human Rights’, Archival Science 14, no. 3–4 (2014): 397–419; Sonja Hegasy, ‘Archive Partisans: Forbidden Histories and the Promise of the Future’, Memory Studies 12, no. 3 (2019): 247–65.

30 See for an in-depth discussion on the development of transitional justice as a scholarly field, or indeed non-field, Christine Bell, ‘Transitional Justice, Interdisciplinarity and the State of the “Field” or “Non-Field”’, The International Journal of Transitional Justice 3, no. 1 (2009): 5–27.

31 Lorraine Dong et al., ‘Examinations of Injustice: Methods for Studying Archives in a Human Rights Context’, in Research in the Archival Multiverse, eds. Gilliland, McKemmish and Lau (Victoria: Monash University Publishing, 2017), 935–67, 941.

32 See for example: Frank Upward, ‘Modelling the Continuum as Paradigm Shift in Recordkeeping and Archiving Processes, and Beyond: A Personal Reflection’, Records Management Journal 10, no. 3 (2000): 115–39; for theoretical methodologies see Jenny Bunn, ‘Grounded Theory’, in Research in the Archival Multiverse, eds. Gilliland, McKemmish, and Lau (Victoria: Monash University Publishing, 2017), 516–36; for a discussion of grounded theory use in archival studies see Hans Hofman,‘The Use of Models and Modelling in Recordkeeping Research and Development’, in Research in the Archival Multiverse, eds. Gilliland, McKemmish, and Lau (Victoria: Monash University Publishing, 2017), 632–58 for modelling approaches see Ann Laura Stoler, Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009); for archival ethnography see Heather MacNeil, ‘Contemporary Archival Diplomatics as a Method of Inquiry: Lessons Learned from Two Research Projects’, Archival Science 4, no. 3–4 (2004): 199–232.

33 Dong et al., ‘Examinations of Injustice’.

34 Stoler, Along the Archival Grain; Ann Laura Stoler, ‘Colonial Archives and the Arts of Governance’, Archival Science 2, no. 1–2 (2002): 87–109.

35 Jimmy Zavala et al., ‘A Process Where We’re All at the Table’: Community Archives Challenging Dominant Modes of Archival Practice’, Archives and Manuscripts 45, no. 3 (2017): 202–15.

36 Wood et al., ‘Mobilizing Records’.

37 Caswell, Archiving the Unspeakable, 14.

38 Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995).

39 Geraci and Caswell, ‘Developing a Typology of Human Rights Records’.

40 Caswell, Archiving the Unspeakable, 21.

41 Geraci and Caswell, ‘Developing a Typology of Human Rights Records’.

42 Many of the earlier trials in France focused on crimes against members of the French resistance rather than on crimes against Jewish victims.

43 The ICTR investigated crimes committed during the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda.

44 Stoler, ‘Colonial Archives and the Arts of Governance’.

45 Ibid, 93.

46 Simon Robins and Erik Wilson, ‘Participatory Methodologies with Victims: An Emancipatory Approach to Transitional Justice Research’, Canadian Journal of Law and Society 30, no. 2 (2015): 219–236, 221.

47 However, transitional justice scholars have also started experimenting with participatory research methods that have social goals that go beyond the production of knowledge and where process is prioritised over output, see e.g. Ibid.

48 Ibid; Liora Israël and Guillaume Mouralis, ‘General Introduction’, in Dealing with Wars and Dictatorships: Legal Concepts and Categories in Action, eds. Israël and Mouralis (The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2013), 1–20; Hugo van der Merwe and M. Brinton Lykes, ‘Idealists, Opportunists and Activists: Who Drives Transitional Justice?’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 12, no. 3 (2018): 381–5.

49 Elizabeth Jelin, State Repression and the Labors of Memory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003).

50 See Andrew Flinn and Ben Alexander, ‘“Humanizing an Inevitability Political Craft”: Introduction to the Special Issue on Archiving Activism and Activist Archiving’, Archival Science 15 (2015): 329–35; or Hughes-Watkins, ‘Moving Toward a Reparative Archive’.

51 See e.g. Eric Ketelaar, ‘Archives of the People, By the People, For the People’, South African Argiefblad/S.A. Archives Journal 34 (1992): 5–16. He invokes a standard set by Sir Hilary Jenkinson, one of the fathers of modern archival practice.

52 For a defense of neutrality see Laura Millar, ‘Touchstones: Considering the Relationship between Memory and Archives’, Archivaria 61 (2006): 105–26.

53 Ibid, 117.

54 Hughes-Watkins, ‘Moving Toward a Reparative Archive’, 6.

55 E.g. Raymond Frogner, ‘Lord, Save Us from the Et Cetera of the Notary: Archival Appraisal, Local Custom, and Colonial Law’, Archivaria 79 (2015): 124–58; Michelle Caswell, ‘Dusting for Fingerprints: Introducing Feminist Standpoint Appraisal’, Journal of Critical Library and Information Studies 3, no. 1 (2019): pre-print of special issue, published online 2019-08-26, https://journals.litwinbooks.com/index.php/jclis/article/view/113/67.

56 Barbara L. Craig, ‘Selected Themes in the Literature on Memory and Their Pertinence to Archives’, American Archivist 65 (2002): 276–89, 288.

57 Ibid.

58 See footnote 4, there is a role for the ‘conscious’ archivist in records management as well.

59 Jimerson, ‘Archives Power’.

60 Millar, ‘Touchstones’.

61 Harris, ‘Antonyms of Our Remembering’.

62 ICA website: https://www.ica.org/en/basic-principles-role-archivists-and-records-managers-support-human-rights (accessed 31 July 2020).

63 E.g. see from the field of memory studies Craig, ‘Selected Themes’ or Kenneth Foote, ‘To Remember and Forget: Archives, Memory, and Culture’, American Archivist 53, no. 3 (1990): 378–92; or for theology see James O’Toole, ‘Archives and Historic Toward a Moral Theology of Archives’, Archivaria 58 (2004): 3–17.

64 Susan Pell, ‘Radicalizing the Politics of the Archive: An Ethnographic Reading of an Activist Archive’, Archivaria 80 (2015): 33–57, 55.

65 Ibid, 56.

66 Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).

67 Antjie Krog, Nosisi L. Mpolweni-Zantsi, and Kopano Ratele, There Was This Goat: Investigating the Truth Commission Testimony of Notrose Nobomvu Konile (Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2009).

68 Harris, ‘Atonyms of Our Remembering’; Verne Harris, Archives and Justice: A South African Perspective (Chicago: The Society of American Archivists, 2007).

69 Wood et al., ‘Mobilizing Records’.

70 Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, ‘Southern Voices in Transitional Justice: A Critical Reflection on Human Rights and Transition’, in Law’s Ethical, Global and Theoretical Contexts: Essays in Honour of William Twining, eds. Baxi, McCrudden, and Paliwala (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 73–89; Laurel E. Fletcher and Harvey M. Weinstein, ‘How Power Dynamics Influence the “North-South” Gap in Transitional Justice’, Berkeley Journal of International Law 37, no. 1 (2018): 1–28.

71 Tshepo Madlingozi, ‘On Transitional Justice Entrepreneurs and the Production of Victims’, Journal of Human Rights Practice 2, no. 2 (2010): 208–28.

72 Kieran McEvoy, ‘Beyond Legalism: Towards a Thicker Understanding of Transitional Justice’, Journal of Law and Society 34, no. 4 (2007): 411–40.

73 Rosalinde Shaw and Lars Waldorf, Localizing Transitional Justice: Interventions and Priorities After Mass Violence (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010); Alexander L. Hinton, Global Mechanisms and Local Realities after Genocide and Mass Violence (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 2010).

74 Juliet Brough Rogers, ‘The Archive as Confessional: The Role of Video Testimony in Understanding and Remorse’, Journal of Human Rights Practice 8, no. 1 (2016): 45–61: 59.

75 Accatino and Collins, ‘Truth, Evidence, Truth’.

76 Eric Ketelaar, ‘A Living Archive, Shared by Communities of Records’, in Community Archives: The Shaping of Memory, eds. Bastian and Alexander (London: Facet Publishing, 2009), 109–33.

77 J.J. Ghaddar and Michelle Caswell, ‘“To Go Beyond”: Towards a Decolonial Archival Praxis’, Archival Science 19, no. 2 (2019): 71–85.

78 Hugh-Watkins, ‘Moving Toward a Reparative Archive’.

79 Harris, Archives and Justice.

80 Thorsten Bonacker, ‘Global Victimhood: On the Charisma of the Victim in Transitional Justice Processes’, World Political Science Review 9, no. 1 (2013): 97–129; Michael Humphrey, The Politics of Atrocity and Reconciliation: From Terror to Trauma (London: Routledge, 2002).

81 Simon Robins, ‘Towards Victim-Centred Transitional Justice: Understanding the Needs of Families of the Disappeared in Postconflict Nepal’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 5, no. 1 (2011): 75–98.

82 On the ritualisation of the South African TRC, see Antjie Krog, ‘The Truth and Reconciliation Commission: A National Ritual’, Missionalia 26, no. 1 (1998): 5–16; or on the performance of testimony in the South African TRC see Catherine M. Cole, ‘Performance, Transitional Justice, and the Law: South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission’, Theatre Journal 59, no. 2 (2007): 167–87; on ‘the erasure of culturally specific modes of telling’ at the Guatemalan commission see Brigittine M. French, ‘Technologies of Telling: Discourse, Transparency, and Erasure in Guatemalan Truth Commission Testimony’, Journal of Human Rights 8, no. 1 (2009): 92–109; on courts see Dembour and Haslam, ‘Silencing Hearings? Victim-Witnesses at War Crimes Trials’, European Journal of International Law 15, no. 1 (2004): 151–77; Julia Viebach, ‘The Evidence of What Cannot Be Heard: Reading Trauma into and Testimony against the Witness Stand at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda’, International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 6, no. 1 (2017): 51–72.

83 Krog et al., There Was This Goat.

84 Ibid.

85 Briony Jones and Ingrid Oliveira, ‘Truth Commission Archives as "New Democratic Spaces"’, Journal of Human Rights Practice 8, no. 1 (2016): 6–24.

86 Kirsten Campbell, ‘The Laws of Memory: The ICTY, the Archive and Transitional Justice’, Social & Legal Studies 22, no. 2 (2013): 247–69.

87 Julia Viebach ‘The Evidence of What Cannot Be Heard: Reading Trauma into and Testimony against the Witness Stand at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda’ (paper presented at the European Consortium for Political Research Annual Conference, Prague, 2016); Viebach, ‘The Evidence of What Cannot Be Heard’.

88 Using the work of Stoler, ‘Colonial Archives and the Arts of Governance’.

89 Lee Ann Fujii, Killing Neighbors: Webs of Violence in Rwanda (New York: Cornell University Press).

90 Harris, ‘The Archival Sliver’.

91 Nigel Eltringham, “We Are Not A Truth Commission”: Fragmented Narratives and the Historical Record at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda’, Journal of Genocide Research 11, no. 1 (2009): 55–79.

92 Richard Ashby Wilson, Writing History in International Criminal Trials (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Viebach, ‘The Evidence of What Cannot Be Heard’.

93 Mark Osiel, Mass Atrocity, Collective Memory, and the Law (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2017).

94 Burton, ‘Introduction’, 2.

95 Ibid, 20.

96 Mbembe, ‘The Power of the Archive’, 21.

97 Ibid.

98 Pius Ojara, ‘Deconstruction and Demonisation: The Role of Language in Transitional Justice’, in Where Law Meets Reality: Forging African Transitional Justice, eds. Okello, Dolan, Whande, Mncwabe, Onegi, and Oola (Cape Town, Dakar, Nairobi and Oxford: Pambazuka Press, 2012), 167–89, 167.

99 Albie Sachs, ‘Archives, Truth, and Reconciliation’, Archivaria 62 (2006): 2–14; Paul Antze and Michael Lambek, ‘Introduction: Forecasting Memory’, in Tense Past: Cultural Essays in Trauma and Memory, eds. Antze and Lambek (New York: Routledge, 1996), xi–xxxviii.

100 The categorisation presented here can overlap in some aspects, and is therefore neither exclusive nor exhaustive.

101 The SATRC final report divided truth into the following categories: personal and narrative truth; social truth; forensic and factual truth; healing and restorative truth. See SATR Final Report, Vol 1, 110–115, https://www.justice.gov.za/trc/report/finalreport/Volume%201.pdf (accessed 28 September 2020); see also Paul Gready, The Era of Transitional Justice: The Aftermath of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa and Beyond (London: Routledge, 2010).

102 Ojara, ‘Deconstruction and Demonisation’, 169.

103 Verne Harris, ‘Antonyms of Our Remembering’.

104 Jeannette A. Bastian and Ben Alexander, eds., Community Archives: The Shaping of Memory (London: Facet Publishing, 2009).

105 Margaretta Jolly, ‘Introduction: Life/Rights Narrative in Action’, in We Shall Bear Witness: Life Narratives and Human Rights, eds. Jensen and Jolly (Wisconsin and London: Wisconsin University Press, 2014), 3–15, 10.

106 Berber Bervernage, History, Memory, and State-Sponsored Violence: Time and Justice (New York and London, 2012).

107 Derrida, Archive Fever.

108 https://www.prisonsmemoryarchive.com/ (accessed 28 September 2020).

109 Nesmith in Eric Ketelaar, ‘Tacit Narratives’, 132.

110 Calling for an archival policy that allows for the largest possible preservation of all kinds of records of transitional processes, including administrative ones and those of bureaucratic decision-making.

111 Trudy Huskamp Peterson, Temporary Courts, Permanent Records (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Special Report, 2006), 7.

112 Ketelaar, ‘A Living Archive’, 121.

113 Burton, ‘Introduction’, 20.

114 Harris, Archives and Justice, 399.

115 Ibid.

116 Schwartz and Cook, ‘Archives, Records, and Power’.

117 Millar, ‘Touchstones’, 123.

118 Pell, ‘Radicalizing the Politics of the Archive’, 56.

119 Ibid.

120 See on this point also Jelena Subotić, ‘Ethics of Archival Research on Political Violence’, Journal of Peace Research 29, no. 1 (2020): 1–13.