![Sample our Humanities journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5939/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Humanities.jpg"})
Abstract
The ironclad alliance between the People’s Republic of China and Albania during the 1960s is often taken as the unquestioned starting point of transnational film exchanges between the two fraternal socialist states. This article delineates the presence of Albanian cinema in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) from 1949 to 1976, when geopolitical realignments reconfigured the socialist camp, with special attention to Albanian cinema’s position within the filmscape in Mao’s China. Drawing on official news reports, movie reviews and recently published personal reminiscences, and employing the lens of the captive audience, it teases out the multifaceted reception of Albanian films, including the types of engagement that deviate from and challenge the then-prevailing revolutionary discourses. The study thus helps to demystify a reductive understanding of the socio-political significance of Albanian cinema in China.
Acknowledgment
I thank the Leverhulme Trust for the generous Research Fellowship grant that has made it possible for me to conduct archival research in China. Parts of this article were presented at the “Socialist World, Third World, Media Worlds Workshop” (School of Slavonic and East European Studies, UCL, November 2018) and the “China and the World: Language, Culture, and Politics Conference” (Sofia University, Bulgaria, December 2019). I would like to thank audiences at these two conferences for their questions. I would also like to thank Jens Grabenstein and Aga Skrodzka for their comments, and two anonymous reviewers for Studies in Eastern European Cinema for their feedback on earlier drafts.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
The project was funded by a Leverhulme Trust Research Fellowship Grant (RF-2018-378\5) “Transnational Practices: Film Culture and Politics in China (1949-1989)”.
Notes
1 Although China is a much bigger country than Albania and Mao Zedong wanted to challenge the Soviet leadership, Albania carried political importance that is disproportionate to its geographical size and served as an advocate for China’s membership of the United Nations in 1971.
2 This Sino-Albanian alliance has recently rekindled much scholarly interest among Cold War historians as it offers extraordinary access for studying not just Cold-War antagonism but also ideological antagonism within the socialist world. See Elidor Mёhilli’s monograph From Stalin to Mao: Albania and the Socialist World (Mёhilli Citation2017) and Ylber Marku’s essay “China and Albania: The Cultural Revolution and Cold War Relations” (Marku Citation2017).
3 There are very few studies on Albanian films in China. Simon Shen and Cho-kiu Li provide a survey of Albanian films in 1960s’ China, mainly from the perspective of Cold-War politics, in their essay “The Cultural Side Effects of the Sino-Soviet Split: The Influence of Albanian Movies in China in the 1960s” (Chen and Li Citation2015). The list of Albanian films provided in the article is very useful. Unfortunately, there are many mistakes in the original Albanian movie titles because the authors replicate the already erroneous titles from the DVD covers. Jessica Ka Yee Chan provides a very brief discussion of Sino-Albanian coproduction in her monograph Chinese Revolutionary Cinema: Propaganda, Aesthetics and Internationalism 1949-1966 (Chan Citation2019, 65-166). See also Jie Li’s essay “Gained in Translation: The Reception of Foreign Cinema in Mao’s China” for a brief analysis of the Chinese reception of Albanian cinema (Li Citation2019, 67-68).
4 Statistics are from Liu Dishan, Xin zhongguo yizhi pian shi:1949-1966 (A History of Dubbed Films in New China: 1949-1966) (Liu Citation2015, 2-4).
5 As Weijia Du points out, the volatile political environment and severe censorship resulted in a constant dearth of domestic films for the Chinese audience and imported films became an indispensable filler in film exhibition programs in the 1949-66 period (See Du Citation2015, 142).
6 Following the USSR, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR), Albania established diplomatic relations with China on November 23, 1950.
7 The Sino-Albania Cultural Cooperation Agreement came into effect on February 21, 1955 and was set to be renewed automatically every five years. For details of the agreement, see Zhonghua renmin gongheguo tiaoyue ji (Collected Treaties of the People's Republic of China), Vol. 3 (Zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiao bu Citation1958, 160-162).
8 The inauguration of the Soviet-built New Albania film studio on the outskirts of Tirana in 1952 marked the take-off of a film industry in communist Albania. See Albanian Cinema Project. Accessed March 10, 2020. https://www.thealbaniancinemaproject.org/albanian-history.html
9 “Qingzhu Aerbaniya jiefang shi zhounian, shoudu gejie juxing qingzhu dahui” (All circles in Beijing hold ceremonious meetings to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the liberation of Albania), Renmin ribao (People’s Daily), November 29,1954.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid.
12 “Renmin minzhu guojia dianying zhou jieshao” (Introduction of the People's Democratic Countries Film Week) Renmin huabao (People’s Pictorial) No. 1 (1951): 36-38. It is very likely that these films were translated live during screening as they are not included in the dubbed film catalogue for 1950.
13 These agreements are collected in the first two volumes of Zhonghua renmin gongheguo tiaoyue ji (Collected Treaties of the People’s Republic of China), compiled by PRC Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1957. Different forms of reciprocal trade included barter deals, licensing, and distribution agreements (See Chen Citation2005, 15).
14 Twenty-four copies of ten Chinese feature films were exported to the Soviet Union, Czechoslovak, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Burma, and Indonesia. The specific number of films exported to individual countries remains unclear (See Chen Citation2005, 15).
15 Yu Ying, “Huasha yitiao jie de gushi” (The Story of Border Street), Dazhong dianying (Mass Cinema), No. 4 (1952): 22.
16 Yu Ying, “Qiaoshika he Malika de xin shenghuo kaishi le: Ping Jiefang le de tudi” (Jóska and Marka start their new life: On The Emancipated Earth), Dazhong dianying (Mass Cinema), No. 7 (1952):12.
17 For introduction to these films see Liu Dishan, Xin zhongguo yizhi pian shi: 1949-1966 (Liu 2015, 242, 247-249).
18 The “Learning from the Soviet Union” campaign may account for such as a high attendance. The 13th 1952 issue of Dazhong dianying (Mass Cinema) carried a special column entitled “What Soviet Films Have Taught Us.” Fifteen audience members from Beijing, Shanghai, Putian and Taizhou contributed to this column, reflecting upon the lessons they had learnt from watching Soviet films such as The Unforgettable Year 1919, The Miners of Donetsk, and The Village Teacher (Shi et al. Citation1952).
19 For a detailed discussion of Film Weeks in Mao’s China, see Ran Ma’s essay “A Genealogy of Film Festivals in the People’s Republic of China: ‘Film Weeks’ during the ‘Seventeen Years’ (1949-1966)” (Ma Citation2016).
20 Cai Shusheng, “Xiang ‘Xiongyali dianyingzhou’ huanhu” (Cheering for Hungary Film Week), Dazhong dianying, No. 15 (1953): 3-4; Anon. “Huanying ‘Baojialiya dianyingzhou’” (Welcome Bulgaria Film Week), Dazhong dianyig, No. 22 (Citation1953): 3-4; Yu Chuangshuo, “Sulian Dianyingzhou”(Soviet Film Week), Renmin huabao, No.12 (1953): 2.
21 Zhong Dianfei, “Zhu Zhong Jie liangguo dianying yishu de jiaoliu” (Congratulations on Sino-Czechoslovakia Film Exchange), Renmin ribao (People’s Daily), April 19, 1953.
22 Aside from the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia was an important training ground for Albanian film technicians.
23 Variations in Chinese renderings of the film title include Sikandepei, Weida zhanshi, and Weida de zhanshi Sikandepei.
24 The film was imported into China shortly after it had been screened in the Soviet Union and Albania. See “Su A hezhi caise yishupian ‘Aerbaniya weida zhanshi sikande’erbeike” (Soviet-Albanian coproduction The Great Warrior of Albania Skanderbeg), Shijie dianying (World Cinema), No. 3 (1954): 87-89.
25 According to the People’s Daily, all these films would be dubbed into Chinese by the Northeast Film Studio and the Shanghai Film Studio in 1954. “Woguo jinnian jiang yizhi sishi duo bu sulian deng guo de yingpian” (Our Country Will Translate and Dub More Than Forty Films from the Soviet Union and Beyond), Renmin ribao (People’s Daily), April 5, 1954.
26 “Qingzhu Aerbaniya jiefang shiwu zhounian” (Celebrate the 15th Anniversary of Albanian Liberation), Renmin ribao (People’s Daily), November 28, 1959.
27 “What’s on in Peking,” Peking Review, No. 48 (1959): 23; “What’s on in Peking,” Peking Review, No. 49 (1959): 23. The film enjoyed a re-run in the following October.
28 Aside from ideological disagreements, secondary factors such as changed needs within the alliance, territorial conflicts and the role of the United States helped accelerate the Sino-Soviet split (Lüthi Citation2011). Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization campaign also prompted Albania’s Communist leader Enver Hoxha to reconsider Albania’s position of leaning-toward-Moscow position in order to defend his domestic and foreign policies (Griffith Citation1963, 22-26).
29 See Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: faxing fangying juan juan (Film Distribution and Exhibition, Book One, Vol. 4 of Annals of Chinese Cinema) (Chen Citation2005, 47).
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid., 48.
32 The article only provides the translated Chinese title of this film, which was probably a documentary. “Qingzhu Aerbaniya Laodong dang jianli ershi zhounian, Aerbaniya paishe wancheng yingpian Xinsheng” (To Celebrate the Founding of the Party of Labor of Albania, Albania Completed the Film New Life), Dazhong dianying (Mass Cinema), No. 11 (1961): 21.
33 “Shijie jianwei di 14 hao: Shehui zhuyi de Aerbaniya zai qianjin” (No.14 of Global Sights and Sounds: Socialist Albania Marches On), Dazhong dianying (Mass Cinema), No. 12 (1961): 2-3.
34 “Gushi pian Shanying zhi ge” (Feature Film Furtuna), Dazhong dianying, No. 2 (1962): 4; See also essays written by Ge Baoquan (Ge Citation1962), Yao Shi (Yao Citation1962) and Tang Jia (Tang Citation1962) published in this issue.
35 “On the Cultural Front,” Peking Review, No. 49 (1962): 21.
36 The original Albanian movie title for Tried and Tested was not provided in “What’s On in Peking,” Peking Review, No. 49 (1962): 23.
37 Fang Ming, “Ying zhi ge: Aerbaniya yingpian Teshu renwu guanhou” (The Song of the Eagle: Afterthoughts on the Albanian Film Extraordinary Mission), Renmin ribao, November 28, 1963; “New Year Holiday Attractions,” Peking Review, No.1 (1966): 31; Yang Yang, “Yingzhe jieji douzheng de fenglang qianjin: Aerbaniya yingpian Women de tudi guanhou (Riding the Waves of Class Struggle: Afterthoughts on Albanian Film Our Land), Renmin ribao, December 8, 1964.
38 See Jessica Ka Yee Chan, 165. For Chinese director Hao Yusheng’s reminiscence about his experience in making this co-production in Albania, see Hao Yusheng’s essay “Jiyu bingjian qianjin de zhanyou” (Messages for our Comrades-in-arms) (Hao Citation1964).
39 Refers to songs composed for Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong. These were popularized in the early stage of the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1969.
40 This political-aesthetic principle prescribes that “among all characters, give prominence to the positive characters; among the positive characters, give prominence to the main heroic characters; among the main characters, give prominence to the most important character, namely, the central character.” The principle not only organized the narrative structure of the Cultural Revolution narrative arts but provided an approach through which mass audiences formed a mutual proletarian consciousness of a society characterized by endless class struggle. See Yizhong Gu, “The Three Prominences” (Gu Citation2011).
41 Romania remained neutral toward the Sino-Soviet split.
42 For a list of films exhibited in Zhejiang province from 1966 to 1970, see Zhejiang sheng dianying zhi (Zhejiang Film Chronicle) (Zhejiang sheng dianying zhi bianwei hui Citation1996, 205-209).
43 Educated youth refers to the millions of college and high school students, many of them former Red Guards, who were sent to the countryside or remote regions of China to be re-educated by the peasants. Between 1968 and 1978 around 12 million urban youths were sent to the countryside during the rustication campaign. See Roderick MacFarquhar and John K. Fairbank (Citation1992, 666).
44 Chaboshi, Discussion board of Dibage shi tongxiang (The Eighth in Bronze), April 4, 2011. https://movie.douban.com/subject/1821148/comments?start=20&limit=20&sort=new_score&status=P (accessed June 18, 2020).
45 Mabei shang de shuishou, Discussion board of Dibage shi tongxiang (The Eighth in Bronze), March 18, 2020. https://movie.douban.com/subject/1821148/comments?start=20&limit=20&sort=new_score&status=P (accessed June 18, 2020).
46 Xiaogang, Discussion board of Dibage shi tongxiang (The Eighth in Bronze), November 25, 2010. https://movie.douban.com/subject/1821148/comments?start=20&limit=20&sort=new_score&status=P (accessed June 18, 2020).
47 Shi Tianding, “Yong qiangganzi gaizao zhengge shijie” (Use Guns to Change the Whole World), Renmin ribao, November 29, 1967.
48 At the height of the Cultural Revolution, the Shanghai Dubbing Studio was renamed as the Shanghai Workers-Peasants-Soldiers Dubbing Studio. Storm and Thunder enjoyed such a popularity that the Shanghai People’s Publishing House in 1973 printed 1 million copies of its lianhuanhu version (palm-sized picture book), which contains 130 sequential illustrations of the film story. See Hai’an fenglei lianhuan hua zu, Hai’an fenglei (Storm and Thunder along the Seashore), Shanghai meishu chubanshe, Citation1973.
49 Shen Zhiyuan, “Aerbaniya dianying: ‘Xiaomie faxisi, ziyou shuyu renmin’”(Albanian Films: “Death to the Fascists, Freedom to the People”), Haerbin ribao (Haerbin Daily), August 10, 2007.
50 Xiaoduxing, “Aerbaniya erzhan jingdian ‘Sidajingang’: Shanying, Hai’an, Mira he Yibulaxin” (Four Classic Second World War Films from Albanian,: Eagle, Seashore, Mila and Ibrahim) https://movie.douban.com/review/9650043/ (accessed on June 1, 2020).
51 According to the blood lineage theory, those born into the families of workers, peasants, soldiers, or cadres were from a “red,” revolutionary background and could thus be trusted; those born into the families of landlords, capitalists, counter-revolutionaries, and intellectuals were considered to be from a “black” background and were therefore enemies of the people. Yu Luoke, in his 1966 essay “On Family Background,” demanded that all revolutionary young people descended from diverse class origins should be treated equally. He was executed in 1970 because of his dissident views.
52 For general popular interpretations of the film at the time, see Yuan Qingfeng’s essay “Aerbaniya yu zhongguo dalu dianying moshi de yitong ji shisu dujie: Yi 1967 nian yizhi de Hai’an fenglei wei li” (Secular Readings of the Similarities and Differences between Albanian Films and Mainland Chinese Films: The Case of 1967 Dubbed Film Storm and Thunder along the Seashore) (Yuan Citation2015).
53 The Albanian Film Week was held in major cities across China, including Beijing, Shanghai, Shenyang, Wuhan and Guangzhou. “Qingzhu Aerbaniya jiefang ershiwu zhounian, Aerbaniya dianying zhou zai Beijing juxing kaimu shi” (The Opening Ceremony of the Albanian Film Week Is Held in Beijing to Celebrate the 25th Anniversary of the Independence of Albania), Renmin ribao (People’s Daily), November 26, 1969.
54 Notable examples include films portraying female revolutionary martyrs such as Liu Hulan (Feng Bailu, 1950) and Zhao Yiman (Sha Meng, 1950).
55 Aliaosha, “Aerbaniya dianying yu Zhongguo guanzhong he lao shangyi” (Albanian Films, Chinese Audiences and the Shanghai Dubbing Studio), http://www.newsmth.net/bbsanc.php?path=%2Fgroups%2Fliteral.faq%2FNostalgia%2FMedia%2FMovie%2FM.1188549334.s0 (accessed June 12, 2020).
56 Interview with Eglantina Kume in Dianying chuanqi: Ningsi buqu (Story of Movie: Victory over Death) produced by Cui Yongyuan, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1RPodXJJ7g (accessed June 16, 2020).