On farm interventions to minimise Campylobacter spp. contamination in chicken

Figures & data

Figure 1. The Flow chart illustrates steps in chicken production on farms. Red steps indicate points at which Campylobacter spp. can pose a risk. Green steps indicate points at which Campylobacter spp. can be controlled. Orange steps indicate the possibility of risk/control, which depends on behaviour/actions

Table 1. Control measures to reduce Campylobacter prevalence and transmission in poultry flocks

Intervention measures	Results	References
Vaccination	The median level of C. jejuni colonisation was reduced to 2.55*10^4 to 1.1*10^6 CFU/gram of caecal content compared with non-vaccinated control group (5.35*10^7 CFU/gram). The median reduction of C. jejuni was 1 log10 to ∼2 log10.in caecal contents. The reduction of C. jejuni is less than 2% in intestinal colonisation compared with unimmunised control birds. The overall reductions of C. jejuni colonisation in the vaccinated chickens ranged from 16 to 93% compared with non-vaccinated controls. 2-log reduction of C. jejuni in caecal colonisation. >6 logs reduction upon homologous challenge. Reductions of 3.78 and 3.47 log10 CFU/g were observed at days 21 and 28 post-challenge. 1-log to 4-log C. jejuni reduction in caecal colonisation. No effect upon homologous challenge. Reduction of C. jejuni positive chickens (40/145 vs. 70/142 in control group).	(Neal-McKinney et al. 2014) (Kobierecka et al. 2016) (Widders et al. 1996) (Rice et al. 1997) (Widders et al. 1998) (Wyszyńska et al. 2004) (Buckley et al. 2010) (Layton et al. 2011) (Ziprin et al. 2002) (Khoury and Meinersmann 1995)
Hygiene and biosecurity farming practices	ND Reduced the risk of Campylobacter spp. infection by over 50% in intervention flocks. Reduced the percentage of Campylobacter spp.-positive flocks from 51.4 to 15.4%. Reduced the prevalence of Campylobacter spp.-positive flocks from 41.4 to 10.3%. The prevalence of Campylobacter-positive broiler flocks at slaughter decreased from 43% in 2002 to 27% in 2007. Rodent control around the house reduced the risk of Campylobacter colonisation (OR = 0.18, 95% CI 0.03–0.95).	(Van de Giessen et al. 1998) (Gibbens et al. 2001) (Hald et al., 2007) (Bahrndorff et al. 2013) (Rosenquist et al. 2009) (Allain et al. 2014)
Drinking water treatment	Crop contamination with Campylobacter was significantly reduced by lactic acid treatment (62.3%) as compared with the controls (85.1%). Chlorination of flock drinking water was not effective in decreasing colonisation by Campylobacter spp. Campylobacter counts in the cloacal samples were about 2 log10 lower in the experimental group which receives monocaprin in drinking water. Capric acid (10 mM, 37°C, 10 min) reduced C. jejuni by ≥6.8 log10 in 10 min. A-1 (formic:acetic:propio- nic acids at 1:2:3) and A-2 (1:2:5) gave a high reduction rate at 3.03 and 3.22 log10 cfu/mL, respectively. Campylobacter numbers were significantly lower in the treatment group (acidified drinking water) compared with group 2 (ordinary drinking water) on d 13, 15, and 19. Chlorinated drinking water reduced the risk of Campylobacter colonisation (OR = 0.5, CI 95% 0.2–0.9). The acidification of drinking water reduced the risk of Campylobacter colonisation (OR = 0.33, 95% CI 0.13–0.86). Organic acids in drinking water of broilers can reduce the caecal Campylobacter spp. by 4.25log10 CFU load, but this did not reduce carcase contamination.	(Byrd et al. 2001) (Stern et al. 2002) (Hilmarsson et al. 2006) (Thormar et al. 2006) (Chaveerach et al. 2002) (Chaveerach et al. 2004) (Ellis-Iversen et al. 2009) (Allain et al. 2014) (Jansen et al. 2014)
Antibiotics (banned the use as growth promoters in animal feed since 2006 in EU)	The C. jejuni loads of the enrofloxacin-, neomycin-, and vancomycin-derived communities were decreased by 1 log, 2 logs, and 4 logs, respectively. Antibiotic treatment at the beginning of the rearing period reduced the risk of Campylobacter colonisation (OR = 0.20, 95% CI 0.07–0.55).	(Scupham et al. 2010) (Allain et al. 2014)
Transport to factory	The Campylobacter spp. in the caecal count significantly increases from 10^5.44 CFU/g to 10^6.15 CFU/g after transport. Catching and placing birds in crates significantly increased the chance that the birds were contaminated with Campylobacter. Campylobacter on crates survived for at least 3 h after sanitisation Chickens transported in Campylobacter-positive crates were more likely to test positive at the slaughterhouse [relative risk (RR) = 2.9, 95% CI 1.1–7.3]. The Campylobacter spp. prevalence in the crops of birds slaughtered after transport (24%) was significantly higher than that for turkeys slaughtered on-farm (3%).	(Stern et al., 1995) (Slader et al. 2002) (Hastings et al. 2011) (Hansson et al. 2005) (Wesley et al. 2009)

ND: Campylobacter spp. were not detectable (<1*10² CFU)

Table 2. Feed additives orally administered to reduce Campylobacter prevalence and transmission in poultry flocks

Feed ingredients	Process conditions	Results	References
Probiotics	PoultryStar® sol Effective Microorganisms (EM) Saccharomyces boulardii Lactobacillus acidophilus and Streptococcus faecium A combination of Citrobacter diversus 22, Klebsiela pneumoniae 23, and Escherichia coli 25 (CE 3)	6-log reduction caecal colonisation by C. jejuni No obvious effect of this product on the reduction of Campylobacter spp. Campylobacter colonisation was not significantly affected by yeast treatment. A 70% reduction in the frequency of C. jejuni shedding in colonised chicks. C. jejuni was not detected in the caeca of birds receiving the prevention treatment, CE 3 with mannose, representing a 62% reduction in the colonisation rate.	(Gharib et al. 2012) (Nuengjamnong and Luangtongkum 2014) (Line et al. 1998) (Morishita et al. 1997) (Schoeni and Wong 1994)
Prebiotic	B. longum PCB 133 (10^8 CFU, 18–24 h at 37°C) 0.2% mannanoligosaccharide 0.1% xylanase	A significant one-log reduction of C. jejuni in the faecal samples. Reduction in caecal Campylobacter load in broiler chickens fed mannanoligosaccharide. The growth scores of C. jejuni from caecal samples of broiler chicks fed the xylanase-supplemented diet were significantly lower.	(Santini et al. 2010) (Baurhoo et al. 2009) (Fernandez et al. 2000)
Organic acids	5.7% lactic acid and 0.7% acetic acid caprylic acid 0.05% butyrate coated beads 1% caproic, caprylic, or capric acid sodium salt 1% Lodestar^TM C8–10 1.5% formic acid and 0.1% sorbate 2% formic acid and 0.1% sorbate	The number of Campylobacter decreased 2–3^10log CFU 3 to 4 logs reduction in caecal Campylobacter counts in. chicks fed with 7% caprylic acid. Butyrate-coated micro-beads are unable to reduce C. jejuni caecal colonisation in 2-week-old broiler chicks. Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) caproic, caprylic, and capric acid was not capable of reducing caecal Campylobacter colonisation in vivo. The number of C. jejuni bacteria required to colonise 50% of inoculated broilers was estimated 200 times higher in broilers fed with supplemented feed (log(10)4.8 CFU) than in control broilers (log(10)2.5 CFU). Reduced the colonisation of C. jejuni significantly. Prevented C. jejuni colonisation in chickens.	(Heres et al. 2004) (De Los Santos et al. 2008b) (Van Deun et al. 2008) (Hermans et al. 2010) (Van Gerwe et al. 2010) (Skånseng et al. 2010)
Plant extracts	Oil of marigold taegetes, ginger root, jasmine, patchouli, and gardenia The ethanolic extract from Eleutherine Americana 0.25% thymol 1% carvacrol 2% thymol treatments a combination of both thymol and carvacrol at 0.5% 1 mM thymol	Bactericidal activity (BA50) values ranging from 0.003 to 0.007. The level of the tested isolates decreased by 2 to 5 log-fold within 8 h at 4 MIC. Reduced from 7.38 ± 0.20log10 to 6.74 ± 0.14log10. Reduced from 7.38 ± 0.20log10 to 6.85 ± 0.17log10. Reduced from 7.38 ± 0.20log10 to 6.88 ± 0.17log10. Reduced from 6.07 ± 0.17log10 to 4.10 ± 0.55log10. Counts of C. jejuni were 6.43 and 6.87 log10 CFU/ml lower than those of controls after 24 and 48 h, respectively.	(Friedman et al. 2002) (Sirirak and Voravuthikunchai 2011) (Arsi et al. 2014) (Epps et al. 2015)
Seafood by-products	0.5% dose of the medium molecular weight chitosan	A significant reduction of Campylobacter.	(Arambel et al. 2015)
Bacteriocins	OR-7 derived from fermenting L.salivarius NRRL B-30 514 125 mg E-760 kg ^−1 feed Bacteriocin E 50–52 1 × 10^4 or 1 × 10^8 CFU of the E. faecalis MB 5259	Significantly reduced the numbers of C. jejuni organisms from 10^6.2 to 10^>8.3 CFU per g of caecal material. Reduced the counts of Campylobacter by more than 8 log10 CFU. The treatment eliminated detectable (<10^2/g) levels of C. jejuni while control birds were colonised with 10^8.40 ± 0.47 CFU/g of caecal content. Not significantly lower caecal Campylobacter MB 4185 counts compared with the control groups.	(Stern et al. 2006) (Line et al. 2008) (Svetoch et al. 2008) (Robyn et al. 2013)
Bacteriophages	Phage 71 Phage CP8 and CP34 Phage CP220 Phage cocktail (phiCcoIBB35, phiCcoIBB37, phiCcoIBB12)	Reduce C. jejuni colonisation by 1 log over the time span of 30 days. Resulted in Campylobacter counts falling between 0.5 and 5 log10 CFU/g of caecal contents compared to untreated controls. Resulted in a significant reduction in mean caecal Campylobacter counts, by 2.1 log CFU/g. Reduced the titre of both C. coli and C. jejuni in faeces by approximately 2 log10 CFU/g.	(Wagenaar et al. 2005) (Carrillo et al. 2005) (El-shibiny et al. 2009) (Carvalho et al. 2010)

MIC: minimal inhibitory concentration

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