Earthquake history at the eastern boundary of the South Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand

Figures & data

Figure 1. A, Tectonic setting of New Zealand. Green rectangle marks location of Figure 1B. B, Location of the Taupo Rift (active faults in red from Langridge et al. 2016). Yellow rectangle marks location of Figure 1C. C, Location map of the Mt Ruapehu Graben, Upper Waikato Stream (UWS), Wahianoa and Rangipo faults in the southern part of the Tongariro Volcanic Complex, in southern Taupo Rift. Potential intersection area marked with a purple rectangle (UWS).

Figure 2. Chronological stratigraphic summary of the laharic and lava formations and andesitic tephras from the Tongariro Volcanic Centre interbedded with distal rhyolitic tephras from the Taupo Volcanic Zone calderas. Notice the general stratigraphic record for the Upper Waikato Stream and Wahianoa Fault areas at the right. *The oldest laharic formations’ ages are based on the Rotoehu ash age (45.16 cal ka BP; Danišík et al. 2012). Ru, Ruapehu; Tg, Tongariro; Ng, Ngāuruhoe; Tp, Taupo; Ok, Okataina, R# corresponds to the lahar episodes as described by Cronin & Neall (1997).

Figure 3. Geological map and general stratigraphy of the SE Mt Ruapehu area (after Townsend et al. 2008; Lee et al. 2011), showing the location of the study sites (sections 1–3) and active surface fault traces (Langridge et al. 2016). See Figure 2 for detailed stratigraphic record.

Table 1. Net-slip, single-event displacements, progressive displacements and timing of rupture of the Upper Waikato Stream Fault, at section 1.

Faults	1		2		3		4		5		Events
Offset (m)	Net-slip	SED/PD	Net-slip	SED/PD	Net-slip	SED/PD	Net-slip	SED/PD	Net-slip	SED/PD	N event (Total SED/PD; unknown %)
Taupo pumice (1.72 ka)		?		?		?					?
Pahoka Tephra (11 ka)		?		?		?					?
Waiohau Tephra (13.64 ka)		?	?	?		?					?
Rerewhakaaitu Tephra (17.7ka)		?	–	?		?					?
Okareka Tephra (21.9 ka)		?	–	?		?					?
Hokey Pokey eruptive period		?	–	?	?	?		?	0.01 ± 0.15	0.01 ± 0.15^a	9 (0.01 ± 0.2 to 0.09 ± 0.2 m; 90%)^a
Ōruanui Tephra (25.4 ka)		?	1.44 ± 0.24	1.44 ± 0.2^a,b	0.12 ± 0.11	0.12 ± 0.11^a		?	0.16 ± 0.24	0.15 ± 0.29	8 (1.71 ± 0.4 to 2.2 ± 0.4 m; 36%)
R10 lahars (26.45 ka)		?	3 ± 0.34	1.57 ± 0.41	0.46 ± 0.12	0.35 ± 0.16		?	–	?	7 (1.93 ± 0.4 to 2.73 ± 0.4^b m; 29.6%)
Marker unit 1 (olive tephra)	?	?	3.66 ± 0.39	0.65 ± 0.51	0.46 ± 0.12	0 ± 0.17	?	?	–	?	6 (0.65 ± 0.5 to 0.92 ± 0.5 m; 29.6%)
R11 lahars (26.45 ka)	0.69 ± 0.22	0.69 ± 0.22^b	3.92 ± 0.44	0.26 ± 0.58	0.81 ± 0.23	0.35 ± 0.26	1.73 ± 0.25	1.73 ± 0.3^a,b	0.43 ± 0.17	0.27 ± 0.3^c	5 (1.03 ± 0.7 to 2.76 ± 0.8^b m; 0%)
Okaia Tephra (28.6 ka)	–	?	?	?	–	?	–	?	?	?	?
Omataroa Tephra (28.2 ka)	–	?			0.92 ± 0.16	0.12 ± 0.28^c	2.08 ± 0.36	0.35 ± 0.44^c			4 (0.47 ± 0.5 to 1.24 ± 0.5 m; 62.2%)^c
Orange lapilli	–	?			–	?	2.54 ± 0.43	0.46 ± 0.56			3 (0.46 ± 0.6 to 1.79 ± 0.6 m; 74.3%)
Elephant surge (marker unit2)	1.04 ± 0.17	0.35 ± 0.28^c			1.15 ± 0.25	0.23 ± 0.3	2.54 ± 0.35	0 ± 0.55			2 (0.58 ± 0.7 to 1.21 ± 0.7 m; 51.94%)
R12 lahars	1.04 ± 0.39	0 ± 0.43			?	?	?	?			?
Hauparu Tephra (36.1 ka)	1.62 ± 0.31	0.58 ± 0.5									1 (0.58 ± 0.5 to 5.64 ± 0.5^b m; 89.7%)^c
Rotoehu Ash (45.16 ka)	?	?									?
R13 lahars (> 45 ka)
Total	4.39 ± 0.57	4	12 ± 0.71	4	3.93 ± 0.43	6	8.89 ± 0.71	4	0.6 ± 0.33	3	9
Fault observations	Wall a 006-026/75-86NW		Wall b & c 037/68NW		Wall b & c 029/>80NW		Wall b & c 005-020/81-84NW		Wall b & c 012-043/72-89SE
Fault termination	R11 lahars		Covered by <17.57 ± 0.6 ka paleo-channel		25.4 ± 0.2 ka		Covered but inferred from fault 5 in 23.6 ± 1.8ka		Hokey Pokey		Unknown
Mean slip-rate (mm/yr)^d	0.03 ± 0.02 (36.1 ka)		0.11 ± 0.03 (26.45 ± 1.1 ka)		0.02 ± 0.02 (32 ka)		0.07 ± 0.02 (34.05 ± 2.1 ka)		0.01 ± 0.01(26.45 ± 1.1 ka)		0.07 ± 0.06 (36.1 ka)
Other comments	Scarp-derived colluvial wedge > R12 lahars, filled with Hauparu Tephra and a grey ash deposit, event shortly after 36.1 ka		0.3 m wide fissure filled with alluvial debris of reworked tephra smeared in fault		Multiple steps around R11 lahars		One event just after 36.1 ka, over-thickening layer above Elephant surge (free fault-face eroded). Multiple-steps at Elephant surge		Antithetic normal fault of fault 4

Net-slip, total displacement associated with each chronological maker; SED/PD, single event displacement/progressive displacement; N event, minimum number of rupture events; total SED/PD, minimum and maximum total progressive displacement; unknown %, unknown percentage of total PD relative to the 100% displacement measured on R11 lahars. Note that we do not differentiate between single-event displacement or progressive displacement here because of these values could represent one rupture (single-event displacement) and more than one rupture event. All values are in metres. All the ages are cal ka BP. See Methods section for data accuracy. Vertical displacements and more detailed description of each fault can be seen in Table S1.

^aLast event known, uncertain timing. –, no value; ?, not sure; ___, fault termination.

^bMore than one event.

^cCould have happened after this time.

^dSlip rate based on net-slip.

Figure 4. Terrestrial laser scanning survey. A, Upper Waikato Stream (UWS) 3D point cloud data. B, Oblique view of the digital outcrop model of the wall ‘a’ in the Upper Waikato Stream Fault built with 3DReshaper Application. C, Satellite image (using Google Earth images, 2015) showing the scanning locations and river exposures (walls) for the terrestrial laser scanning survey in the Upper Waikato Stream, section 1 (see location on Figure 3).

Figure 5. Location of the main faults in the Upper Waikato Stream area. A, Hillshade map of the Upper Waikato Stream based on 2 m DSM showing the studied faults in sections 1 (green rectangle) and 2 (blue dots, blue rectangle). Fault exposures (dots) and fault traces (continuous lines) are differentiated from the inferred faults (discontinuous lines). Faults downthrown to the NW are marked with red lines; faults downthrown to the SE are marked with yellow–brown lines. The fault planes are plotted in stereographic (lower hemisphere) projection and superimposed rose diagrams of fault strike frequency (right-hand rule). B, Section 1 of the Upper Waikato Stream (green rectangle in A) showing the seven main fault traces (purple dots), as well as an extensional fracture and two transects t1 and t2 (white lines) used to sum and calculate total offset for the Upper Waikato Stream Fault.

Figure 6. Faults in section 1 in the Upper Waikato Stream. A, Wall ‘a’ main fault exposure, showing fault 1 displacing volcanic deposits older than c. 28 ka (left, field photo; right, interpretation with stratigraphic column). B, Wall ‘b’ showing the location of fault 2 with a 0.3 m ‘fissure fill’ (left, field photo; right, interpretation with stratigraphic column). C, Detailed exposure of fault 4 on wall ‘b’ displacing tephras older than R11 lahars. The numbers show the elevation in m a.s.l. See Figure 2 for further information about stratigraphic units.

Figure 7. Extensional fractures located on wall ‘a’ in the Upper Waikato Stream. A, The 12 m long fissure filled with Ōruanui Tephra (white arrow; > 25.4 cal ka BP; photo taken by S. Donoghue), cutting older tephras and lahar deposits. B, Other fissures were measured on the same wall, cutting R11 lahars. C, These fissures do not show any vertical displacement, but record extension. D, The R11 lahar deposits are abruptly truncated at the fissure margins, with no mixed material along fissure sides. The reworked Ōruanui tephra shows cross-bedding stratified layers. E, All the fissures reflect orthogonal extension and are consistent with the NNE-trending Mt Ruapehu Graben. Rose diagrams for the measured fissures and faults in the Tongariro Volcanic Centre (TgVC), where strike directions (right-hand rule) are plotted.

Figure 8. Main outcrops of the Upper Waikato Stream Fault in section 2. A, 10/4_2: Normal fault displacing the Papakai Formation. B, 10/4_3: Exposure of fault displacing deposits including R13 and older lahars.

Table 2. Net-slip, single event displacement and timing of fault rupture of the Upper Waikato Stream Fault, at section 2.

Faults	10/4_2	10/4_3	10/4_4	10/4_5	10/4_6	11/4_4 and 11/4_5	Events
Offset (m)	Net-slip	Net-slip	Net-slip	Net-slip	Net-slip	Net-slip	(Total SED/PD)
Taupo pumice (1.72 ka)	?						?
Mangatawai Tephra (3.52 ka)	0.54 ± 0.19						? (0.54 ± 0.19 m)^a
Papakai formation (3–11 ka)	?					?	?
Poutu lapilli (11 ka)			?			0.75 ± 0.2	2 (0.75 ± 0.21 m)^b
Pahoka Tephra (11 ka)			–			?	?
Okupata (11.77 ka)			2.37 ± 0.42				? (2.37 ± 0.42^c m)^b
Waiohau Tephra (13.64 ka)			?				?
Rerewhakaaitu Tephra (17.7 ka)							?
Okareka Tephra (21.9 ka)						?	?
Hokey Pokey eruptive period						0.92 ± 0.2	? (0.17 ± 0.31 m)^b
Ōruanui Tephra (25.4 ka)						2.3 ± 0.42	? (1.38 ± 0.48 m)
R10-R11 lahars (26.45 ka)						?	?
Okaia Tephra (28.6 ka)							?
Omataroa Tephra (28.2 ka)					?		?
R12 lahars			?		–		?
Hauparu Tephra (36.1 ka)		?	–		–		?
Rotoehu Ash (45.16 ka)		–	–		–		?
R13 lahars (>45 ka)		–	–		–		?
Marker unit 3		–	–		1.44 ± 0.3		? (1.44 ± 0.3)^b
R14 lahars (>55 ka)		3 ± 0.52	3.46 ± 0.58	?	–		1 (≥1.1 ± 0.72 m)^b
R15 lahars (<133 ka)		?	?	2.43 ± 0.44	?		? (2.43 ± 0.44)
Total	0.54 ± 0.19	3 ± 0.35	5.83 ± 0.72	2.43 ± 0.44	1.44 ± 0.3	3.98 ± 0.52	8
Fault observations	005-028/77NW	015/72SE	355-020/46-84NW	030/72SE	015-020/60-72NW	010-025/70-76NW
Fault termination	uncertain	<45 ka	uncertain (<11 ka)	uncertain	?<36.1 ka Unconformity	Uncertain (<11 ka?)	Unknown
Mean slip-rate (mm/yr)^d	0.21 ± 0.08 (2.54 ± 0.23 ka)	>0.07 ± 0.02 (>45 ka)	0.13 ± 0.04 (55 ka)	>0.02 ± 0.0 (133 ka)	0.02 ± 0.01 (36.1 ka)	0.07 ± 0.03 (25.4 ± 0.2 ka)	0.08 ± 0.07 (133 ka)
Other comments	Multiple-steps at Papakai F.	10 m-high river exposure	Erosive paleo-channel <55 ka	4-step fault at >133 ka	10 m-high exposure 3-step fault >36.1 ka	4 faults & 2 fractures, tilted deposits

Net-slip, total displacement associated with each chronological maker; SED/PD, single event displacement/progressive displacement; N event, minimum number of rupture events. All values are in metres. All ages are cal ka BP. See Methods section for data accuracy. Vertical displacements and more detailed description of each fault can be seen in Table S1.

^aLast event known, uncertain timing. –, no value; ?, not sure; ___, fault termination.

^bCould have happened after this time.

^cMore than one event.

^dSlip rate based on net-slip.

Figure 9. Wahianoa Fault profiles and outcrops. A, Geological map (Leonard et al. 2014) showing the location of the studied field sites along the Wahianoa Fault in section 3; and the 10 topographic profiles (39)pehu. ld photo; B the TgVC (e) traced with their corresponding vertical offset values in metres. The geological map overlies a hillshade created with a 2 m-resolution Digital Surface Model from the SE flank of Mt Ruapehu. B–C, The two main outcrops of the Wahianoa Fault in section 3 showing displaced tephra (field locations shown on Figure 9A). The fault planes are plotted in stereographic (lower hemisphere) projection and superimposed rose diagrams of fault strike frequency (right-hand rule). Most of the tephra belongs to the Bullot Formation from Mt Ruapehu (Donoghue & Neall 2001; Pardo et al. 2012). See Figure 2 for more information about the stratigraphy and Figure 3 for location of section 3.

Table 3. Net-slip, single-event displacements, progressive displacements and timing of rupture of the Wahianoa Fault, at section 3.

	Outcrops				Profiles		Outcrops + profiles N events
Faults	Tonga 15	Tonga 23	Tonga 24	N event
Offset (m)	Net-slip	Net-slip	Net-slip	(Total PD)	Net-slip	PD	(Total SED/PD)
Taupo pumice (1.72 ka)				?		?	?
Mangatawai Tephra (3.52 ka)		?		?		?	?
Poutu lapilli (11 ka)		–		?	?	?	?
Poronui Tephra (11.2 ka)	?	–		?	6 ± 1.5	6 ± 2.12^a	9 (6 ± 2.12^b)^a
Pahoka Tephra (11 ka)	–	–		?	11.5 ± 4	5.5 ± 5.3	8 (5.5 ± 5.32^b)
Pourahu member (11.77 ka)	–	–		?	–	?	?
Okupata (11.77 ka)	0.69 ± 0.2	1.07 ± 0.2		2(0.69 ± 0.2)^a	–	?	7? (0.69 ± 0.17)^c
Shawcroft Tephra	–	1.44 ± 0.2		?(0.37 ± 0.3)	–	?	(0.37 ± 0.31)
Waiohau Tephra (13.64 ka)	?	1.77 ± 0.3		?(0.32 ± 0.4)	–	?	(0.32 ± 0.36)
Karioi eruptive period (15 ka)		–		?	23 ± 3	12 ± 3.9^c	6 (12 ± 3.9^b)^c
Rerewhakaaitu Tephra(17.7 ka)		–		?	30 ± 4.5	7 ± 6	5 (7 ± 6^b)
Last glacial maximum (>18 ka)		2.04 ± 0.3	?	?(0.28 ± 0.4)^c	–	?	? (0.28 ± 0.41)^c
Hokey Pokey eruptive period		?	2.2 ± 0.32	1(2.22 ± 0.3)^c	–	?	4?(2.22 ± 0.32)^c
Ōruanui Tephra (25.4 ka)			?	?	–	?	?
R10 lahars (27 ka)					–	?	?
R11 lahars (27 ka)					–	?	?
Okaia Tephra (28.6 ka)					–	?	?
Omataroa Tephra (28.2 ka)					–	?	?
Hauparu Tephra (36.1 ka)					–	?	?
R13 lahars (< 45 ka)					32 ± 4.5	2 ± 6^c	3 (2 ± 6)^c
R14 lahars (> 45 ka)					–	?	?
R15 lahars (< 133 ka)					34 ± 3	2 ± 4.24^c	2 (2 ± 4.24)^c
Wahianoa Formation (133 ka)					39 ± 4.5	5 ± 6.36	1 (5 ± 6.36^b)
Total	0.69 ± 0.2	6.33 ± 0.5	2.2 ± 0.3	> 2	175.51 ± 21.3		> 9 events
Fault observations	060-090/80SE	036-098/60-90NNW	020-080/69-85SSE	NE/SE	035-045/SE		NE/SE
Fault termination	Uncertain (< 11.77 ka)	Uncertain (< 11 ka)	Uncertain (< 17.7 ka)	Uncertain (< 11.77 ka)	Uncertain (< 11 ka)		Uncertain (< 11 ka)
Mean slip-rate (mm/yr)^d	0.06 ± 0.0 (11.77 ka)	0.11 ± 0.0 (17.7 ka)	0.09 ± 0.02 (23.6 ka)	0.15 ± 0.31 (> 45 ka)	< 0.3 ± 1.12 (133 ka)		> 0.15 ± 0.31 (133 ka)
Comments	Multiple-step fault	Antithetic faults of Tonga 24	Primary fault of Tonga 23	Good geomorphic expression

Net-slip, total displacement associated with each chronological maker; SED/PD, single event displacement/progressive displacement; N event, minimum number of rupture events. All values are in metres. All ages are cal ka BP. See Methods section for data accuracy. Vertical displacements and more detailed description of each fault can be seen in Table S2.

^aLast event known, uncertain timing. –, no value; ?, not sure; ___, fault termination.

^bMore than one event.

^cCould have happened after this time.

^dSlip rate based on net-slip.

Table 4. Comparison of fault rupture number and timing of the Upper Waikato Stream, Wahianoa and Rangipo faults.

Fault	Upper Waikato Stream Fault	Wahianoa Fault	Rangipo Fault Villamor et al. 2007
Section	1 and 2	2 and 3
		(Outcrops + profiles)
Offset (m)	N event (Total SED/PD; unknown %)	N event (Total SED/PD)	N event (Total SED/PD)
Taupo pumice (1.72 ka)	?	?	7 (0.1 m)
Mangatawai Tephra (3.52 ka)	12? (0.54 ± 0.2 to 0.86 ± 0.2; 37.3%)^a	?	6 (0.14 m)
Papakai formation (3–11 ka)	?	?	5 (0.8 m)
Poutu lapilli (11 ka)	11 (0.75 ± 0.2 to 1.2 ± 0.2; 37.3%%)^b	?	4 (0.35 m)
Poronui Tephra (11.2 ka)	?	9^c (6 ± 2.12 m)^a	?
Pahoka Tephra (11 ka)	?	8^c (5.5 ± 5.32 m)	?
Pourahu member (11.77 ka)	(2.37 ± 0.4 to 3.78 ± 0.4^c; 37.3%)^b	?	3 (1.2 m) > 25 km
Okupata (11.77 ka)	?	7? (0.69 ± 0.2–1.76 ± 0.3 m)^b	2 (> 0.4 m)
Shawcroft Tephra		(0.37 ± 0.31 m)	?
Waiohau Tephra (13.64 ka)		(0.32 ± 0.36 m)	1 (32 m)
Karioi eruptive period (15 ka)		6^c (12 ± 3.9)^b
Rerewhakaaitu Tephra (17.7 ka)		5^c (7 ± 6)
Last Glacial Maximum (>18 ka)		(0.28 ± 0.41 m)^b
Hokey Pokey eruptive period	10 (0.01 ± 0.2 to 0.17 ± 0.2; 99.8%)	4? (2.22 ± 0.32 m)^b
Ōruanui Tephra (25.4 ka)	9 (1.71 ± 0.4 to 2.2 ± 0.4; 36%)	?
R10 lahars (27 ka)	8 (1.92 ± 0.4 to 2.73 ± 0.4^c; 29.6%)	?
Marker unit 1 (olive tephra)	7 (0.65 ± 0.5 to 0.92 ± 0.5; 29.6%)	?
R11 lahars (27 ka)	6 (1.03 ± 0.7 to 2.76 ± 0.8^c; 0%)	?
Okaia Tephra (28.6 ka)	?	?
Omataroa Tephra (28.2 ka)	5 (0.47 ± 0.5 to 1.24 ± 0.5; 62.2%)^b	?
Orange lapilli	4 (0.46 ± 0.6 to 1.79 ± 0.6; 74.3%)	?
Elephant surge (marker unit 2)	3 (0.58 ± 0.7 to 1.21 ± 0.7; 51.94%)	?
Hauparu Tephra (36.1 ka)	2 (0.58 ± 0.5 to 5.64 ± 0.5^c; 89.7%)	?
R13 lahars (<45 ka)	?	3 (2 ± 6)^a
Marker unit 3	(1.44 ± 0.3 to 2.3 ± 0.3; 37.3%)^a	?
R14 lahars (>45 ka)	1 (1.1 ± 0.7 to 1.75 ± 0.7; 37.3%)	?
R15 lahars (<133 ka)	?	2 (2 ± 4.24)^a
Wahianoa Formation (133 ka)		1^c (5 ± 6.36)
Total	> 12 events	> 9 events	7 events
Fault observations	NE/NW	NE/SE	NNE/NW
Fault termination	Uncertain (< 3.52 ka)	Uncertain (< 11 ka)	Uncertain (< 1.72 ka)
Mean slip-rate (mm/yr)^d	0.5 ± 0.06 (45 ka)	>0.15 ± 0.31 (133 ka)	0.25–0.49 (13.64 ± 0.2 ka)

The dark and medium grey shaded areas show the possible timing for simultaneous rupturing of the Upper Waikato Stream and Wahianoa Faults, while the dark and light grey shaded areas show possible timing for simultaneous rupturing of the Upper Waikato Stream and Rangipo faults. SED/PD, single event displacement/progressive displacement; N event,  minimum number of rupture events; Unknown %, unknown percentage of total PD relative to the 100% displacement measured on R11 lahars. All values are in metres. All ages are cal ka BP. See Methods section for data accuracy. Vertical displacements and more detailed description of each fault can be seen in Tables S1 and S2.

^aLast event known, uncertain timing. –, no value; ?, not sure; ___, fault termination.

^bCould have happened after this time.

^cMore than one event.

^dSlip rate based on net-slip.

Figure 10. Fault slip-rate variation from > 45 ka to present day for the Rangipo Fault (

) (Villamor et al. 2007), the Wahianoa Fault (based on profiles,

), and the Upper Waikato Stream Fault (

 minimum values and

 maximum values). Higher slip-rate periods are coincident with the Bullot Formation, the Pahoka–Mangamate eruptions (PM), the Orange lapilli and marker unit 2 (Elephant surge) from Mt Ruapehu, and the Ōruanui eruption from Taupo. Taupo pumice (TP) eruption is indicated at 1.72 cal ka BP (TP). Zero (0) indicates the present day.

Figure 11. Potential physical intersections and rupture models of the Upper Waikato Stream Fault with Rangipo and Wahianoa faults. A, Independent ruptures. B, Potential rupture of the Wahianoa (WF) and Upper Waikato Stream (UWS F) faults (27 km). C, Potential rupture of the Rangipo (RF), Upper Waikato Stream and Kaimanawa (Kai F) faults (43 km).

Table 5. Moment magnitude and single-event displacement for different fault lengths.

Fault	Segment surface length (km)	Average displacement (m)	MW
UWS^a	15	0.8	6.5
Wahianoa + UWS	27	1.5	6.8
Rangipo + UWS + Kaimanawa	43	2.4	7.1

Estimated average single-event displacement in metres and earthquake moment magnitude (M_W) based on Webb’s equation, for a certain segment surface length (km) and fault area (as described in Villamor et al. 2007; Stirling et al. 2012, see Methods section).

^aNote that the Upper Waikato Stream (UWS) Fault individual rupture length is a minimum value.

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