Readers’ Theater Projects for Special Education: A Randomized Controlled Study

Figures & data

Table 1. Composition of the study groups.

	RT Goal	RT Practice	Control	Mainstream	Total	χ^2(3)
N	50	49	59	159	317
Selection criteria (primary/secondary)	45/5	41/8	52/7		138/20
Gender (girls/boys)	28/22	31/18	32/27	90/69	181/136	1.00
Grade (3/4)	20/30	26/23	27/32	61/98	134/183	3.73

Note. Out of the 146 students who originally fulfilled the primary selection criteria, four students were moved to Mainstream group, three students ceased participation in RT, and one moved from the region after pretest. Two students moved from Mainstream group to intervention groups are included in the number of students fulfilling the secondary selection criteria (see Supplement B for more information).

Table 2. Overview of the readers’ theater programs.

# Lesson	RT Practice	RT Goal
1	Introduction to RT, goals of the training, drama contract, and establishment of a safe learning environment for the group. Getting to know the script and drama exercises. The teacher reads the whole script aloud to the students, who follow along with the text.
2	Reading aloud scenes 1–4, discussion, reading aloud scenes 5–8, discussion.
3–4	Concentrating on one character of the play at a time. Students collaborate to search for this character’s lines. Echo reading the character’s lines led by a student. The teacher or a student reads a short introduction of each character. The students mime and/or act out according to what they hear in the story.
Halfway 5–7	Deeper analysis of the content of the scenes, reading the scenes in different ways, and changing roles. During Lesson 7, character introduction readings rehearsed.	During Lesson 5, students given roles and rehearse playing their roles. Lesson 6 focuses on practicing scenes 1–4, and Lesson 7 on scenes 5–8.
8	Dress rehearsal and reading of character introductions to an audience.	Dress rehearsal and performance of the play for an audience.

Note. RT = Readers’ theatre.

Table 3. Background information of the study groups.

Measures	RT Goal	RT Practice	Control	Mainstream	Total	df	F
	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)
Age (years)	10.02 (0.64)	9.89 (0.62)	9.98 (0.55)	10.01 (0.66)	9.99 (0.63)	3, 315	0.67
Reading fluency (Z)	−1.41 (0.68)	−1.56 (0.73)	−1.60 (0.70)	0.16^a (0.69)	−0.69 (1.09)	3, 317	156**
Parental education (1–7)	4.86 (1.16)	4.84 (1.16)	4.60 (1.26)	5.28^b (1.13)	5.02 (1.19)	3, 314	5.81**
Lessons:
Reading sum (per week)	5.87 (1.98)	5.92 (2.02)	6.09 (1.36)			2, 148	0.203
Literacy (per week)	4.28 (0.80)	4.12 (0.91)	4.58 (0.60)
Special educ. (per week)	0.34 (0.62)	0.45 (0.82)	0.83 (1.05)

Note. ** p < .001. Each 45-minute period was counted as one reading lesson (i.e., 1 RT session = 2 lessons, 2 mini-lessons = 1 lesson). On average, the Control group received 1.35 mini-lessons in a week (SD = 0.93).

^a Significantly different from all the other groups.

^b Significantly different from the Control group.

Figure 1. Estimated marginal means of (a) oral reading speed and (b) errors.

Figure 2. Estimated marginal means of (a) reading enjoyment and (b) oral reading anxiety

Figure 3. Estimated marginal means of student engagement in reading instruction.

Table 4. Results of GLMER analyses of oral reading skills.

Effect	Speed (AIC = 6739)				Errors (AIC = 939)
	df	F	p	es	df	F	p	es
Time	2, 296	153.72^a	<.001	1.019	2, 396	17.71^c	<.001	0.310
Group	3, 167	115.49^b	<.001	1.440	3, 289	77.34^d	<.001	0.896
Time × Group	6, 271	7.75	<.001	0.414	6, 355	3.043	.006	0.227
Planned contrast	b	SE	t	p	b	SE	t	p
From T1 to T2
RT Goal vs. Mainstream	3.631	1.272	2.855	.005	0.161	0.067	2.399	.017
RT Practice vs. Mainstream	6.271	1.365	4.596	<.001	−0.012	0.072	−0.169	.866
Control vs. Mainstream	7.226	1.354	5.338	<.001	−0.029	0.062	−0.474	.636
RT Goal vs. Control	3.595	1.585	2.267	.024	0.190	0.072	2.655	.008
RT Practice vs. Control	0.955	1.661	0.575	.566	0.017	0.076	0.224	.823
RT Goal vs. Practice	2.64	1.59	1.655	.099	−0.173	0.081	−2.15	.032
From T2 to T3
RT Goal vs. Mainstream	4.364	1.451	3.001	.003	−0.075	0.070	−1.060	.290
RT Practice vs. Mainstream	2.767	1.554	1.781	.076	0.120	0.070	1.706	.089
Control vs. Mainstream	4.453	1.440	3.092	.002	0.154	0.059	2.607	.010
RT Goal vs. Control	0.089	1.701	0.52	.958	0.229	0.073	3.118	.002
RT Practice vs. Control	1.690	1.791	0.942	.348	−0.034	0.073	−0.463	.643
RT Goal vs. Practice	−1.598	1.800	−0.889	.375	−0.195	0.083	−2.35	.019

^a T1 < T2 < T3.

^b Mainstream > Other groups.

^c T1 > T2 & T3.

^d Control > Other groups, Mainstream < Other groups.

Table 5. Results of GLMER analyses of motivational measures.

Effect	Reading enjoyment (AIC = 2105)				Oral reading anxiety (AIC = 2235)
	df	F	p	es	df	F	p	es
Time	2, 270	30.29^a	<.001	0.474	2, 246	10.63^c	<.001	0.294
Group	3, 210	8.822^b	<.001	0.355	3, 298	6.94^d	<.001	0.264
Time × Group	6, 278	5.663	<.001	0.350	6, 261	2.50	.023	0.240
Planned contrast	b	SE	t	p	b	SE	t	p
From T1 to T2
RT Goal vs. Mainstream	−0.143	0.147	−0.975	.331	0.352	0.161	2.187	.029
RT Practice vs. Mainstream	−0.008	0.136	−0.062	.950	0.133	0.183	0.727	.468
Control vs. Mainstream	−0.322	0.139	−2.313	.021	0.089	0.176	0.506	.614
RT Goal vs. Control	0.179	0.184	0.977	.330	0.263	0.221	1.193	.234
RT Practice vs. Control	0.314	0.175	1.789	.075	0.044	0.237	0.184	.854
RT Goal vs. Practice	0.134	0.181	0.742	.459	0.220	0.226	0.972	.332
From T2 to T3
RT Goal vs. Mainstream	−0.161	0.146	−1.11	.272	0.131	0.161	0.815	.417
RT Practice vs. Mainstream	−0.452	0.134	−3.382	<.001	0.219	0.164	1.34	1.81
Control vs. Mainstream	−0.349	0.128	−2.723	.007	0.305	0.178	1.709	.090
RT Goal vs. Control	0.187	0.168	1.114	.268	0.173	0.219	0.790	.431
RT Practice vs. Control	−0.104	0.158	−0.658	.511	−0.085	0.221	−0.386	.700
RT Goal vs. Practice	0.291	0.173	1.69	.094	−0.088	0.208	−0.424	.672

^a T1 & T2 < T3.

^b Mainstream > Other groups.

^c T1 & T2 < T3.

^d Control > RT Practice, Mainstream < Control & RT Goal.

Table 6. Results of GLMER analyses of engagement measures.

Effect	School, beh. (AIC = 509)				RT, emot. (AIC = 447)				RT, dis. (AIC = 481)				RT, beh. (AIC = 360)
	df	F	p	es	df	F	p	es	df	F	p	es	df	F	p	es
Time	1, 120	2.094	.150	0.131	1, 37	0.000	.983	0	1, 58	0.011	.916	0.014	1, 57	1.696	.198	0.170
Group	2, 107	1.123	.329	0.145	1, 46	7.082	.011	0.365	1, 79	8.644	.004	0.314	1, 74	7.285	.009	0.299
Time × Group	2, 121	3.889	.023	0.254	1, 37	0.424	.519	0.106	1, 58	0.290	.592	0.071	1, 57	1.901	.173	0.180

Note: School = School’s reading lessons, RT = Reader’s theater, beh = behavioral, emot = emotional, dis = disaffection.