The potential of amaranth grain for feeding to poultry

Figures & data

Figure 1. Amaranth species used in nutrition.

Table 1. NDF and ADF concentrations in amaranth grain, with wheat and corn grains for comparison.

Items	Study reference	NDF (%DM)	ADF (%DM)
Untreated amaranth grain	Janmohammadi et al. (2022)	33.9	6.19
Heat-treated amaranth grain	Janmohammadi et al. (2022)	34.82	6.84
Raw amaranth grain	Kianfar et al. (2023)	34.17	6.25
Autoclaved amaranth grain	Kianfar et al. (2023)	35.15	6.92
Raw ground amaranth grain	Jacob et al. (2008)	9.53	6.21
Whole raw amaranth flour	Acar et al. (1988)	9.59	5.75
Autoclaved whole amaranth flour	Acar et al. (1988)	18.12	7.24
Fat-free raw amaranth flour	Acar et al. (1988)	8.22	4.29
Fat-free autoclaved amaranth flour	Acar et al. (1988)	10.33	4.30
Raw amaranth bran	Acar et al. (1988)	20.63	12.73
Autoclaved amaranth bran	Acar et al. (1988)	27.05	12.63
Popped grain flour	Acar et al. (1988)	23.40	9.80
Wheat	Rostagno et al. (2011)	12.26	11.75
Corn	Rostagno et al. (2011)	3.19	3.54

Table 2. Amaranth grain amino acid profile percentage compared to eggs (FAO 1990), wheat and corn (NRC 1994).

Items	Hosseintabar-Ghasemabad et al. (2022)	Ravindran et al. (1996)	Tillman and Waldroup (1986)	Acar et al. (1988)	Tillman and Waldroup (1988c)	Raw (2012)	Egg	Wheat	Corn
Arginine	0.71	1.79	1.43	0.77	1.33	1.06	0.81	0.40	0.38
Histidine	0.23	0.40	0.40	0.23	0.37	0.38	0.32	0.20	0.23
Isoleucine	0.33	0.60	0.57	0.34	0.53	0.58	0.66	0.42	0.29
Leucine	0.62	0.96	0.86	0.50	0.79	0.87	1.11	0.59	1.00
Lysine	0.54	1.01	0.88	0.48	0.81	0.74	0.92	0.31	0.26
Methionine	0.28	0.35	0.35	0.21	0.32	0.22	0.40	0.15	0.18
Phenylalanine	0.43	0.69	–	0.39	0.61	0.54	0.67	0.45	0.38
Threonine	0.38	0.60	0.53	0.31	0.49	0.55	0.55	0.32	0.29
Tryptophan	0.15	–	0.19	–	0.18	0.18	0.19	0.12	0.06
Valine	0.42	0.67	0.64	0.39	0.59	0.67	0.81	0.44	0.40
Alanine	0.41	–	–	0.30	–	0.79	0.72	–	–
Aspartic acid	1.00	1.30	–	0.69	–	1.26	1.30	–	–
Cysteine	0.21	–	0.32	0.23	–	0.19	0.29	0.22	0.18
Glutamic acid	1.61	2.73	–	1.43	–	2.25	1.64	–	–
Glycine	0.72	1.32	1.08	0.65	1.01	1.63	0.43	0.49	0.33
Proline	0.36	–	–	0.35	–	0.69	0.49	–	–
Tyrosine	0.40	–	–	0.35	0.49	0.32	0.53	0.39	0.30
Serine	0.61	0.98	0.81	0.55	0.75	1.14	0.98	0.55	0.37

Table 3. Concentrations of oil and squalene in amaranth grain and other crops.

Items	Study reference	Oil (%)	Squalene in oil (%)	Squalene in 100 g of edible plants
Raw A. hybridus	Janmohammadi et al. (2023)	5.7	5.14	0.30
Processed A. hybridus	Hosseintabar-Ghasemabad et al.(2022)	5.2	4.30	0.22
Raw A. hybridus	Kianfar et al. (2023)	5.5	3.95	0.22
Autoclaved A. hybridus	Kianfar et al. (2023)	5.4	4.00	0.21
A. cruentus	Cai et al. (2004)	5.57–7.72	4.52–5.44	0.25–0.42
A. hybridus	Cai et al. (2004)	6.40	5.23	0.33
A. hypochondriacus	Cai et al. (2004)	5.35–7.05	3.62–5.01	0.19–0.35
A. tricolor	Cai et al. (2004)	5.08	6.14	0.31
Corn	Cai et al. (2004)	4	0.03	0.01
Cottonseed	Cai et al. (2004)	7	0.01	0.007
Rice	Cai et al. (2004)	1–3	0.3	0.003
Olive	Cai et al. (2004)	36	0.4	0.14
Peanut	Cai et al. (2004)	47	0.03	0.14

Table 4. Fatty acid profile in amaranth grain (%).

Items	Hosseintabar-Ghasemabad et al. (2020)	Cai et al. (2004)	Chung et al. (2009)	Palombini et al. (2013)
Palmitic acid (C16:0)	7.66	12–25	20.4	15.58
Oleic acid (C18:1, n–9)	15.22	19–35	33.3	23.82
Linoleic acid (C18:2, n–6)	34.79	25–62 0.3–2.2	38.2	28.92
γ-linolenic acid (C18:3, n–6)	0.30		–	0.53
α-linolenic acid (C18:3, n–3)	0.37		0.7	0.69

Table 5. The effect of using different amounts and forms of amaranth grain on bird performance, health, meat and egg quality, listed in chronological order of publication.

Reference	Poultry group	Specie	Amaranth grain form	Effects on performance	Effects on health	Explanations and reasons	Conclusions
Connor et al. (1980)	Broiler chickens	A. edulis	Raw	Feeding raw amaranth up to 71% led to a decrease in body weight, feed consumption and feed conversion efficiency.	The feathers were wrinkled and mucous secretions were observed in the mouth, and the head was retracted, as in star gazing.	The presence of anti-nutrients, such as oxalate and nitrate, was noticeable in the amaranth species.	The amaranth species was similar to cereals in terms of nutrient content. However, due to the presence of anti-nutritional compounds and the possible toxicity of the seed in its raw form, high consumption levels were not recommended.
Connor et al. (1980)	Broiler chickens	A. edulis	Processed	Feeding up to the level of 74% led to a decrease in feed consumption and body weight. Feed conversion efficiency was similar to the control group.	Feathers were ruffled and liver tissue was pale.	Hepatotoxicity was detected	After thermal processing by autoclaving, the desired species could replace up to 70% of grains and protein concentrates.
Laovoravit et al. (1986)	Broiler chickens	A. cruentus	Raw	Included at 10% and 30% of the diet. No problems were observed at 10%, but at 30% there was reduction in feed consumption and growth	Pallor was noticeable in the liver, although liver cholesterol content was similar to the control group.	Decreased performance at 30% of the diet was attributed to anti-nutritional compounds and reduced availability of nutrients.	Raw amaranth can be included at up to 10% of the diet without loss of performance
Laovoravit et al. (1986)	Broiler chickens	A. cruentus	Processed	Included at 10% and 30% of the diet. Growth performance was similar to the control group.	Paleness in the liver decreased by autoclaving amaranth. Liver cholesterol contents were similar to the control group.	Despite reduction of anti-nutrients with thermal processing, performance appeared to be restricted by thiamine deficiency at high amaranth inclusion rates.	Autoclaved amaranth could be included at up to 30% of the diet without loss of performance.
Laovoravit et al. (1986)	Broiler chickens	A. cruentus	Processed	Inclusion of amaranth at 78% of the diet did not affect chick growth. On d 17 weight loss was observed.	On day 17 symptoms of convulsions, stargazing, stretched legs and folded heads were observed in the chickens.	At these high inclusion rates, the clinical symptoms were similar to those of thiamine deficiency.	Very high rates of feeding amaranth are likely to lead to thiamin deficiency
Waldroup et al. (1985)	Broiler chickens	A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus	Raw and autoclaved	Included at 20% and 40% of the diet. Neither raw nor autoclaved forms adversely affected performance at 20%. At 40% weight gain and feed intake reduced, but less after autoclaving.	No pathological lesions or toxicity effects	At levels of more than 20%, the increase of non-nutritive compounds (saponin and phenolic compounds) led to a decrease in growth. In A. hypochondriacus, the decrease was greater.	At 20%, inclusion rate, performance was acceptable.
Tillman and Waldroup (1986)	Broiler chickens	A. cruentus	Autoclaved and extrusion	Performance was similar to control diet at 20% and at 40% if properly processed.	None reported	Wet extrusion did not work well	Amaranth grain can be used up to 40% in the diet if properly processed by autoclaving and extrusion.
Tillman and Waldroup (1988c)	Broiler chickens	A. cruentus	Extruded	At levels of 10–40%, no negative effect on performance was observed. At 50% growth was retarded.	No lesions or fat infiltration in the liver, but some liver and abdominal fat hypertrophy at high inclusion rates. Gizzard weight declined with amaranth inclusion.	At 50 % inclusion, feed refusal or low digestibility reduced growth.	Extruded amaranth feeding up to 40% level can be recommended as a feed source in feeding broilers without negatively affecting performance and carcass characteristics.
Acar et al. (1988)	Broiler chickens	A. cruentus	Raw and autoclaved	In the autoclaved form, growth was significantly greater than the raw form and equivalent to Control diet. Raw amaranth decreased feed conversion efficiency.	None reported	Amaranth flour, fat-free flour, perisperm, bran and popped amaranth in both raw and autoclaved forms were tested. Perisperm increased growth and popping reduced it.	Autoclaved amaranth grain and its fractions can mostly be used like corn.
Ravindran et al. (1996)	Broiler chickens	A. hypochondriacus	Raw and autoclaved	20% and 40% autoclaved and raw amaranth included. Feed intake increased for raw amaranth and growth reduced, even with amino acids.	No pathological lesions. In the diet containing 60% amaranth, hypertrophy of liver (and proventriculus in some birds), decrease in heart weight and increase in pancreas weight.	The presence of heat-labile anti-nutritional factors in raw amaranth was suspected. of amaranth.	The thermal processed form can be included in the diet of broilers up to 40%.
Kabuage et al. (2002)	Broiler chickens	A. hypochondriacus	Raw and extruded	40% raw and 60% extruded included. 60% decreased growth unless casein added. Feed intake increased for raw amaranth and growth reduced, even with amino acids. No effect for extruded amaranth.	Mineral availability increased with with extrusion. Zn retention increased.	Casein supplementation allowed 60% amaranth to be included without loss of performance.	Extrusion and fortification with casein improved utilization.
Pisarikova et al. (2006)	Broiler chickens	A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus	Raw and popped	Trend for reduced chicken weight at end of experiment with popped amaranth, compared with raw, at 10% of diet.	No negative effects on health were reported.	Popped amaranth had reduced CP, EE, NDF, GE, NFE and OM digestibility.	By feeding amaranth, no negative effect was observed on performance, health and meat quality.
Longato et al. (2017)	Broiler chickens	A. caudatus	Raw	Decreased growth was observed at 5% and 10% amaranth. Meat quality unaffected.	Decreases in serum cholesterol and triglycerides at 5 and 10% amaranth.	Dietary lipid oxidation decreased and antioxidants increased with amaranth.	Amaranth feeding could improve bird health.
Tillman and Waldroup (1987)	Laying hens	A. cruentus	Extruded	Compared with the Control diet, 10% and 20% amaranth in the diet increased egg production rate but reduced egg weight. No effect on daily egg mass.	None reported	With increasing amaranth, yolk were more yellow and less orange; no other effects on egg quality.	If the amaranth grain is properly steam extruded, it can be used up to 30% in the diet of laying hens without any negative effects on production performance and egg quality.
Qureshi et al. (1996)	Laying hens	A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus	Raw, milled and popped	Compared with Control diet, 20% amaranth reduced serum LDL by up to 70%, but not HDL.	By feeding amaranth grain, apolipoprotein decreased and the activity of 7alpha-hydroxyl cholesterol increased. HMG coenzyme-A decreased in popped, milled amaranth.	Amaranth is rich in tocotrienols and squalene. Serum apolipoproteins reduced. Popped amaranth most effective, maybe due to high squalene content.	In addition to tocotrienols and squalene compounds, amaranth contains strong and other inhibitors against harmful cholesterol, and the effects of reducing cholesterol were beyond expectations.
Króliczewska et al. (2008)	Laying hens	A. cruentus	Raw	Amaranth at 2%, 5% and 10%.	A decrease in blood cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL, ALT and AST at 10%.		At the highest level, lipid parameters were improved.
Popiela et al. (2013)	Laying hens	A. hypochondriacus	Extruded	5% and 10% of diet tested. 5% but not 10% increased blood AST, egg production and feed conversion efficiency. Egg quality unaffected.	With increasing consumption of amaranth, in the blood glucose decreased. Fatty acid composition of egg yolks largely unaffected.		5% amaranth more beneficial than 10%.
Rodríguez-Ríos et al. (2020)	Laying hens	A. cruentus	Autoclaved	15%, 30% and 45% of diet. 45% increased rate of lay, and feed intake, with feed conversion efficiency reduced.	Egg yolk cholesterol unaffected by inclusion of amaranth.		Conclusion that egg yolk cholesterol declined not supported by data provided.
Hosseintabar-Ghasemabad et al. (2022)	Laying hens	A. hybridus	Autoclaved	10%, 20%, 30% and 40% of the diet. 30% and 40% inclusion reduced egg weight, in total and daily, and reduced feed conversion efficiency.	30% and 40% amaranth reduced egg yolk cholesterol. All levels increased antioxidants, triglycerides, total cholesterol and HDL in serum. LDL decreased with amaranth.	Effects attributed to antioxidants, squalene, and reduction in enzymatic activity of cholesterol 7-alpha hydroxylase, 3-hydroxy-3 methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase in liver.	Amaranth feeding, improved some blood parameters related to the health of birds and also led to the production of low-cholesterol eggs, when included at high levels.
Janmohammadi et al. (2023)	Laying hens	A. hybridus	Raw	10%, 20%, 30% and 40% of the diet. Decreased egg production, egg mass, yolk cholesterol, and feed conversion efficiency at all levels.	Blood cholesterol declined and HDL increased at all levels.	A 10% reduction in egg cholesterol was observed in birds fed with amaranth. The studied amaranth was known to be a rich source in terms of phytosterol and tocopherol bioactive compounds as well as squalene.	Feeding raw amaranth was able to improve the health of the bird without negatively affecting the egg quality, and at the same time, low-cholesterol eggs were produced.
Kianfar et al. (2023)	Laying hens	A. hybridus	Raw and autoclaved	5%, 10% and 15% of the diet. Raw amaranth at 15% decreased egg production, yolk cholesterol, blood glucose and feed intake. Amaranth increased linoleic acid and PUFA in eggs.	10% and 15% reduced blood triglyceride compared with 5%. Amaranth reduced blood cholesterol and increased blood antioxidants and glucose.	Blood effects attributed to antioxidants in amaranth	Autoclaved amaranth preferable to raw form and can maintain performance whilst improving egg quality.
Jakubowska et al. (2013)	Japanese meat quail	A. cruentus	Raw	4% and 7% of the diet. 4% improved breast muscle tenderness, 7% reduced palatability.	No effects reported; no change in chemical composition or fatty acid profile.		The lower dose rate may be more likely to have beneficial effects
Szczerbinska et al. (2015)	Japanese quail layers	A. cruentus	Raw	4% and 7% of the diet. Egg production declined at 7%. Amaranth reduced feed consumption. % yolk increased with 4% amaranth. Reproduction improved.	At the level of 7% amaranth feeding, an increase in the concentration of cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL and albumin and the level of liver enzymes in the serum was reduced.	Squalene and PUFAs believed to have improved reproduction	Only 4% level in quail feed was recommended to maintain performance and bird health.

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