Learner involvement in the co-creation of teaching and learning: AMEE Guide No. 138

Figures & data

Figure 1. Numbers of citations on co-creation (or synonyms) in higher education.

Figure 2. Framework of Stakeholder Involvement in Co-Creation.

Table 1. Challenges in the co-creation process.

Learner level	Teacher level	Institutional level
Lack of process and content expertise: Unfamiliairity with new role and responsibility Insecure about own knowledge and skills Insufficient communication and collaboration skills	Giving up control: Redefine roles and responsibilities Threatened to give up control Feeling vulnerable within institution	Lack of support: Lack of time for meetings, revision of education and long-lasting commitments Lack of funding
Power relationships: Perceived risks of speaking up Power imbalance through assessment	Skepticims that learners add value: Not recognize value in learners’ input Not really listen to learners	Lack of recognition: Lack of recognition and safety for teachers Lack of clarity about roles Not underlining the value of co-creation
Voice fatigue and feeling unheard: Learners not involved in implementation Perceived lack of action Lack of sense of ownership	Perceived threats in opening up for change: Not be open for reflection and personal growth Difficulties with receiving feedback Stick to pedagogical habits
	Usual way of communication no longer fits: Challenge to find common ground Learners might be resistant to contribute Too much focus on negative issues

Table 2. Theory-inspired directions to overcome challenges in co-creation.

	Self-Determination Theory	Positioning Theory	Psychological Safety
Learner level/teacher level	Ensure recognition of both leaners’ and teachers’ competence and autonomy	Change existing mutual positions of learners and teachers in education	Increase learner motivation to participate, increase teacher motivation to listen and open up for feedback
Team level	Build strong and respectful relationships between teachers and learners	Develop shared understanding of roles and responsibilities in co-creation	Develop a psychological safe environment where learners can speak up
Organizational level	Create learning opportunities to develop new competencies for co-creation	Allow and support redefining roles and responsibilities and reducing hierarchy	Provide support and stimulate a safe climate for teachers to give up some control and allow experimenting with co-creation

Figure 3. Overview of approaches for implementation of co-creation, at the level of learners, teachers, teams of learners and teachers, and institutions.

Text box 1. Overview of our recommendations for implementing co-creation on each of the levels of the Framework of Stakeholder Involvement in Co-Creation

Inner triangle	Most important aims: Benefits for co-creating participants, including an improved psychosocial learning environment (more positive, inclusive and democratic learning climate, because of better relationships, increased sense of belonging, safety) and increased motivation and metacognition (understanding each other’s perspectives, increased ownership and responsibility, deeper engagement with education, improved skills)	Strong selection of participants will not be appropriate. Learners who are not yet very motivated for learning and teachers whose professional development would benefit from more bidirectional feedback may also be invited to be involved. Co-creation can be performed during the educational program as participants can real-time contribute to its improvement and benefit from this improvement themselves. Co-creation might be done with all learners in a class and performed by larger numbers of teachers. Getting familiar with new roles and responsibilities needs extra attention as well as developing necessary skills for co-creation in learners and teachers. Working on a sense of shared responsibility and limiting power differentials is important. Optimizing the co-creation process by reflection and keeping a positive stance contribute to the effectiveness of the collaboration. Support from faculty developers and the institution is needed. Co-creation can be a long-lasting initiative.
Outer circle	Most important aim: Benefits for the wider population, regarding improved quality and usability of the educational design of a course/ curriculum or way of teaching (incorporating expertise and perspectives of all important stakeholders in the set-up of education)	Priority could be given to selecting a limited number of learners, teachers and other stakeholders who are highly motivated and already have relevant skills and attitudes to perform well in co-creation. Best invite learners who already followed the educational program and are able to look back and reflect for developing ideas to improve education. Given a stricter selection of participants, less emphasis might be needed on ensuring that the conditions for co-creation (familiarization, confidence, communication and feedback skills, adjusting to new roles and shared responsibility) are met. This, however, needs to be judged in the own context. Support by faculty developers and the institution is important to optimally facilitate the process. Co-creation can be a development project with a clear endpoint, for example when an educational design is delivered, or be a continuous process for quality assurance and readjusting of education.