Cycling provision separated from motor traffic: a systematic review exploring whether stated preferences vary by gender and age

Figures & data

Figure 1. Summary of evidence management strategy.

Figure 2. Articles by year.

Table 1. Characteristics of included studies.

		Number of studies	Percentage of studies
Sample size	Under 50	2	4
	50–99	6	11
	100+	45	83
	Not stated	1	2
Study composition	All cyclists, or under 50% non-cyclists	39	72
	At least 50% non-cyclists	12	22
	Not stated	3	6
Country of origin	USA	19	35
	UK	8	15
	Belgium	3	6
	Canada	4	7
	Other/more than one country	20	37
Sampling method	Convenience sample	34	63
	Purposive convenience sampling	5	9
	Random sampling	14	26
	Not stated	1	2
Preference elicitation method	Description (only)	26	48
	Existing infrastructure	8	15
	Images	16	30
	Video	4	7
Situational specificity	Very low	25	46
	Medium	19	35
	High	10	19

Figure 3. Gender and preferences for separated infrastructure, by sample size (minus one study with missing sample size).

Table 2. Preferences for separated infrastructure by age and gender.

	Preferences for separated infrastructure by gender and age	Number of studies	Percentage of studies
Gender	Women’s preferences are stronger	23	57.5
	No statistically significant differences	17	42.5
	Men’s preferences are stronger	0	0
Age	Older people’s preferences are stronger	9	38
	No statistically significant differences	12	50
	Younger people’s preferences are stronger	3	13

Figure 4. Age and preferences for separated infrastructure, by sample size.

Table 3. Gender, age and infrastructure preferences.

Citation key	Country	Population	Statistically significant differences reported	Similarities
Akar, Fischer and Namgung (2013a)/Akar, Fischer and Namgung (2013b)	USA	Ohio State University students, faculty, staff	Females are more likely than males to self-identify as a “beginner cyclist who prefers to stick to the bike trails, paths and/or sidewalks” while substantially more males self-identified as an “advanced, confident cyclist who is comfortable riding in most traffic situations”. Proportions of female students who chose “vehicular traffic” and “lack of bicycle lanes/paths/trails” as barriers to bicycling were significantly higher than that of the male students
Aldred (2015)	UK	Mostly cyclists in UK	Study asked whether 10 aspects of the cycling environment would be suitable for riding on by (a) “most people” (b) on their own (c) carrying a child (d) with an 8-year-old (e) by a 12-year-old. Seven of these 50 differences were significant, with more support for segregation among females	For 43 out of 50 situations, there were no significant differences. In particular, there were no significant gender differences for questions related to 8- and 12-year-olds
Antonakos (1995)	USA	552 cyclists at four recreational bike tours in Michigan	For commuter cycling preferences, females rated bike lanes and bike paths higher on average, than males. On a scale from 1 (not at all preferred/not at all important) to 5 (very preferred/extremely important), females rated bike lanes and bike paths at 4.2 and 4.1, respectively, on average compared to 3.9 and 3.6 for males. Females and males both rated traffic safety as high importance, though females gave higher ratings (4.5 vs. 4.1)	The hierarchy of “corridor type” preferences was similar with regards to commuting: males and females both rated bike lanes and wide curb lanes as high preferences
Antonakos (1995)	USA	552 cyclists at four recreational bike tours in Michigan	For recreational cycling preferences, cycling experience and age were negatively associated with preference for bike paths, sidewalks, dirt roads, and trails for recreational cycling For commuting cycling preferences, age and cycling experience were negatively associated with preference for bike paths, sidewalks, and dirt trails for commuting	Age was not associated with concerns about traffic and safety
Berggren, Graves, Pickus, and Hand Wirtis (2012)	USA	Portland cyclists	Females more often responded “much more likely” over “somewhat more likely” for every street characteristic by at least 9%. Safety characteristics of a bike route (e.g. markings, low traffic, traffic lights at arterials, etc.) were more important to female cyclists	Survey data did not indicate large gaps between the preferences of male and female cyclists when combining those who were “much more likely” and “somewhat more likely” to select a route based on a characteristic
Bernhoft and Carstensen (2008)	Denmark	Pedestrians and cyclists aged 40–49 and 70+ in two provincial cities in Denmark	A significantly higher proportion of females than males found cycle paths important for their comfort In the younger group, a higher proportion of females than males would choose a route with cycle path and signalised crossings	Presence of cycle paths was the most important route attribute for both men and women
Bernhoft and Carstensen (2008)	Denmark	Pedestrians and cyclists aged 40–49 and 70+ in 2 provincial cities in Denmark	A higher proportion of older than younger respondents said that the presence of cycle paths was most important for their comfort The amount of traffic was not as important for the younger group as for the older group	Both the older and younger cyclists felt that the presence of cycle paths was most important for their comfort (over 80% for both groups)
Börjesson and Eliasson (2012)	Sweden	Cyclists in Stockholm		Males and females placed equal value on the different route types, for example, cycling time spent on street (or on a cycle path)
Börjesson and Eliasson (2012)	Sweden	Cyclists in Stockholm		The marginal utilities of time and money were not significantly dependent on age
Brick, McCarthy, and Caulfield (2012)	Ireland	Cyclists and non-cyclists in Dublin	Females had a greater preference than males for “greenways” and “off road cycle lanes”	Ordering of route types was the same for both genders – off-road cycle lane, then Greenway, then on-road cycle lane, then shared bus lane, then no facilities
Deenihan and Caulfield (2015)	Ireland	Tourists at two locations in Dublin	Male tourists were more likely than females to choose a road without cycling facilities, with female tourists more likely to choose a road with cycle lanes or a segregated from traffic cycling facility	Female tourists were very unlikely to select a road without any cycling facilities
Deenihan and Caulfield (2015)	Ireland	Tourists at two locations in Dublin	Younger tourists were more likely than older tourists to choose a road without any cycle infrastructure. Older tourists have a higher preference for a fully segregated facility, over a cycle lane
Chataway et al. (2014)	Australia/Denmark	Cyclists targeted through university networks and cycling forums in Brisbane and Copenhagen. Fliers left on bikes in Copenhagen	Male cyclists were linked to lower fear of traffic (measured through a range of questions about cycling situations) in comparison with female cyclists
Chataway et al. (2014)	Australia/Denmark	As above	Older cyclists were more averse to riding in mixed traffic
dell’Olio, Ibeas, Bordagaray, and Ortúzar (2014)	Spain	117 self-classified potential bike users in Santander	Women were more critical than men of existing cycle networks, placing more value on adequate and safe paths	The influence of “existence of an adequate cycle path” in the mode choice model was not affected by gender
Dickinson, Kingham, Copsey, and Pearlman Hougie (2003)	UK	Employees at three organisations in Hertfordshire	Cycle paths were particularly popular among females who lived near enough to cycle and had access to a cycle	Cycle paths were popular amongst both males and females
Dill and McNeil (2014)	USA	Residents in Portland	Females were under-represented among more confident adults and those who cycled for transportation
Dill and McNeil (2014)	USA	Residents in Portland	Older adults were under-represented among more confident adults and those who currently cycle for transportation
Dill, Goddard, Monsere, and McNeil (2015)	USA	Cyclists and residents in five large US cities (Cyclists and non cyclists)	On several measures of safety and comfort, female cyclists using protected bike lanes had more positive associations with the lanes than males. For example: - Females were more likely to agree that the new protected bikeways were safer than other city bikeways (93% vs. 87%) - Females were slightly more comfortable than males on paths or trails separated from the street and less comfortable on commercial streets without bike lanes For potential female bicyclists (part of the residential group), protected lanes increased stated comfort levels significantly, though females still reported lower comfort levels than males Among residents interested in bicycling more for transportation, 87% of females and 82% of males agreed that they would be more likely to ride if motor vehicles and bicycles were physically separated	Both males and female intercepted cyclists overwhelmingly felt that protected bike lanes increased their safety while riding in them There were no gender differences found amongst intercepted cyclists in relation to some statements about protected bike lanes, for example: - The buffer section with parked cars makes me feel safe (asked on lanes with buffers) - The buffer effectively separates bikes from cars - The buffer does a good job of protecting bikes from cars - The lane design effectively separates bicyclists from pedestrians Amongst intercepted cyclists, there were few gender differences with regards to facility design
Emond, Tang, and Handy (2009)	USA	Random sample of residents in six small cities in the USA	Males were more likely than females to report that they would ride with heavier traffic, despite similar levels of discomfort	Males experienced approximately as much discomfort on average as females on facilities not separated from heavier traffic
Gardner (1998)	UK	Leisure cyclists, non-cyclists and utility cyclists in different areas of England	More males than females were willing to cycle alone, with some females indicating that they did not feel safe if cycle lanes were too isolated, or in parks or the countryside on their own
Heesch, Sahlqvist, and Garrard (2012)	Australia	Adult cyclists in Queensland who were members of Bicycle Queensland (BQ) club	For transport cycling, females were less likely than males to prefer cycling on the road For recreational cycling, females were less likely than males to prefer cycling on-road, but more likely to prefer cycling off-road Top constraints for at least half of males and females were perceived environmental factors, namely traffic and aggression from motorists, with females significantly more likely to report these	For transport cycling, few males or females preferred to cycle on the road On-road routes were even less preferred for transport cycling than recreational cycling by both males and females
Hughes and Harkey (1997)	USA	Twenty-three casual and 12 experienced cyclists	Apparent reduction in sensitivity to risk on the part of the “younger cyclist” (under 20 years)
Hunt and Abraham (2007)	Canada	Cyclists in Edmonton		Indications that older people had less aversion to mixed traffic and that the very young had less aversion to paths were statistically weak
Krizek, Johnson and Tilahun (2005)	USA	292 current and potential cyclists in Minnesota	Females were willing to travel more additional minutes than men for a preferred facility. Assuming a 20 minute commute, males were willing to divert 5.43 fewer minutes than females	Male and female cyclists were relatively similar in the proportion who valued specific facilities such as on-road lanes, separate paths, and a connected system of bicycle routes Both males and females were willing to travel longer for an off-road facility, followed by a bicycle lane with no on-street parking
Landis, Vattikuti, and Brannick (1997)	USA	150 cyclists aged 13+ in Tampa, Florida		No significant difference in mean bicycle quality-of-service scores by gender
Landis et al. (2003)	USA	60 cyclists aged 13+ in Orlando, Florida		No significant difference in mean bicycle quality-of-service scores by gender
Lawson, Pakrashi, Ghosh, and Szeto (2013)	Ireland	1954 cyclists, who regularly cycled in Dublin within the previous 12 months		For both genders, cyclists who preferred to use roads with no cycling facilities were more likely to describe cycling as safe than others
Lawson et al. (2013)	Ireland	As above	The probability of describing cycling as safer than or as safe as driving grew with age
Li, Wang, Liu, Schneider, and Ragland (2012)	China	805 cyclists in the metropolitan area of Nanjing		Male and female bicyclists did not perceive different levels of comfort on physically separated bicycle path sections
Li et al. (2012)	China	805 cyclists in the metropolitan area of Nanjing	Bicyclists under 30 were 10% more comfortable on average across all facilities studied than those over 30
Lusk, Wen, and Zhou (2014)	China	1150 adults in Hangzhou	The difference between males and females preferring to use the road was statistically significant (5.3% male, 3.0% female) Females preferred segregated cycle tracks more than males (60.2% vs. 53.9%) Females preferred bicycle signals more than men (69.1% vs. 63.7%)	Few males or females preferred to use the road Preference for bicycling on segregated cycle tracks in the study population was almost double in both genders, compared to all other types of route
Ma and Dill (2015)	USA	Random phone survey of 902 adults in Portland, Oregon region	Females with children were more likely to perceive their relatively “high bikeable” neighbourhoods as low bikeable, than males with children
Ma and Dill (2015)	USA	Random phone survey of 902 adults in Portland, Oregon region	Compared with people aged 18–34, middle-aged (35–54) people are less likely to hold low perceptions in “high bikeable” neighbourhoods; while older people (55+) are nearly three times more likely to perceive “high bikeable” environments as low
Majumda, Mitra, and Pareekh (2015)	India	Residents of two small Indian cities	Significant gender differences were found for the following statement for one of the samples: I will not cycle because of safety hazard associated	No significant gender differences were found for the following statement for both samples: - I will not cycle because presence of other motorised vehicles makes it difficult for bicycle commuters especially in peak hours
Majumda et al. (2015)	India	Residents of two small Indian cities		No significant age differences were found for the following factors/statements for both samples: - I will not cycle because presence of other motorised vehicles makes it difficult for bicycle commuters especially in peak hours - I will not cycle because of safety hazard associated
Mertens et al. (2014)	Belgium	66 Flemish adults (45–64 years) living in an urban (>600 inhabitants/km2) or semi-urban (300–600 inhabitants/km2) municipality in Flanders or Brussels Capital Region		No moderating effects of gender or age when exploring environmental factors related to the invitingness for transportation cycling
Misra et al. (2015)	USA	127 users of Cycle Atlanta smartphone application	Gender had an influence on rider type self-categorisation: - Male cyclists were more likely to categorise themselves as “strong and fearless” or “enthused and confident” than the female cyclists; - Females were more likely to classify themselves as “comfortable but cautious” than male riders	Riders across all cyclist types prefer dedicated cycling facilities and are opposed to high-speed traffic and high-volume traffic
Misra et al. (2015)	USA	As above	Age had an influence on rider type self-categorisation: - Older people were less likely to categorise themselves as “strong and fearless” - With increasing age people are more likely to group themselves into less confident groups	As above
Parkin, Wardman, and Page (2007)	UK	144 cyclist and non-cyclists from Bolton Metropolitan Borough Council, the University of Bolton and Bolton Royal Hospital	Males generally considered cycling more acceptable than females	Models were estimated that included person type variables and interactions between those and journey variables. While these did show some significant effects, they were often at the expense of the main effects becoming non-significant
Parkin et al. (2007)	UK	144 cyclist and non-cyclists from Bolton Metropolitan Borough Council, the University of Bolton and Bolton Royal Hospital	The young and older people perceived junctions as adding more risk than those aged 35–44 Young and older people generally considered cycling less acceptable than those aged 35–44
Petritsch, Ozkul, McLeod, Landis, and McLeod (2009)	USA	80 cyclists at the Ride for Science 2009 in Tampa, Florida		No statistically significant grading difference was found between genders in this bicycle level of service study of paths adjacent to roadways
Petritsch et al. (2009)	USA	80 cyclists at the Ride for Science 2009 in Tampa, Florida		No statistically significant grading difference was found between age groups
Ryley (2005, 2006)	UK	Cyclists and non-cyclists in West Edinburgh	More females than males said that more money should be spent on on-road cycle lanes, and that safety fears prevent them from cycling The model coefficient for “facilities on route” was higher for women than males
Sallis et al. (2013)	USA	1780 adults aged 20–65 in Seattle, Washington and Baltimore, Maryland regions		No association between gender and the stated projected increase in cycling if safety from cars was improved
Sallis et al. (2013)	USA	As above		No association between age and the stated projected increase in cycling if safety from cars was improved
Sanders (2014)	USA	263 people who drive and/or cycle, in the San Francisco Bay Area	Female respondents were significantly less comfortable than males sharing with motor traffic	Barrier-separated bicycle lanes were popular among potential and current cyclists, irrespective of gender, age, and cycling frequencies
Segadilha et al. (2014)	Brazil	65 (80% male) cycle commuters in a medium-sized Brazilian city (São Carlos, SP)		No statistically significant gender differences in factors influencing cyclist route choice
Segadilha et al. (2014)	Brazil	As above		No statistically significant age differences in factors influencing cyclist route choice
Sener, Eluru, and Bhat (2009)	USA	1605 cyclists across more than 100 cities in Texas	Male bicyclists perceived bicycle facilities in their community to be better than did female bicyclists
Sener et al. (2009)	USA	1605 cyclists across more than 100 cities in Texas	Young bicyclists (18–24) had the most positive perception of safety from traffic crashes Young bicyclists perceived bicycle facilities in their community to be better than did older bicyclists Bicycle lanes led to a substantial improvement in perception of safety from traffic crashes, particularly for individuals aged 65 +	No statistically significant difference in safety perceptions among individuals of different ages beyond 24 years
Steer Davies Gleave (2010a, 2010b)	UK	Cyclists and non-cyclists in London	Females gave “No traffic on the road”, “Segregated cycle lane” and “Junction types” higher ranks than did males, while “Unsegregated cycle lane” was lower down the list compared to males On average, females rated the absence of (clearly marked) cycle lanes as more unsafe than males. For example, the mean safety score given for “no cycle lanes” varied between 7.3 and 7.8 for different female age groups, compared to 6.5 to 7.1 for different male age groups (where 1 is “completely safe” and 10 “completely unsafe”)	Males and females both had stronger preferences for segregated cycle lanes (compared to no cycle lane or non-segregated cycle lanes) and no traffic (compared to low volume of traffic) Men and women of all ages had similar infrastructural preferences, on average, when comparing kerb-segregated and off-road lanes (the two most preferred infrastructure types), clearly marked cycle lanes (less preferred) and no cycle infrastructure (least preferred)
Steer Davies Gleave (2010a, 2010b)	UK	Cyclists and non-cyclists in London	For females, perceptions of safety generally decreased with age, particularly aged 55–64 and 65 +  The youngest males tended to rate the choices as less safe than those in other age groups, although not as much as the oldest group	As above
Steer Davies Gleave (2012)	UK	2307 cyclists in London	There was a significant difference in confidence between males and females saying that they felt confident to cycle on all roads (79% vs. 50%) Females were much more likely to prefer routes away from other traffic and difficult junctions. The average score for “Safety is the most important consideration when choosing a cycle route” for females was 0.89, compared to 0.53 for males (based on a five point scale from strongly agree (+2) to strongly disagree (-2)) In general, female respondents were slightly more likely to rate each junction as less safe than males and more prepared to detour Though male respondents agreed on average that they would avoid a route with difficult junctions, they were less certain they would avoid that particular route (0.66 compared to 1.04 for females) Female cyclists were slightly more willing to change their route in order to use a dedicated on-road cycle lane (56% vs. 48%)	Generally, “route choice considerations” were in the same direction (where >0 indicates agreement and >0 disagreement) There was no variation between male and female cyclists in willingness to consider changing routes to use a cycle superhighway
Steer Davies Gleave, 2012	UK	2307 cyclists in London	Those aged 55 or over or under 35 were more likely to choose to cycle on routes with less traffic (or in a separate cycle lane) Greater willingness to change route for parks and green spaces amongst over 55s: 67% said that they would change their route, compared to 58% of 35–54-year-olds, and 47% of under 35s At junctions, older respondents reported feeling less safe than younger ones and slightly more prepared to detour Willingness to consider changing routes to use a cycle superhighway increases slightly with age	Willingness to change route for a dedicated on-road cycle lane differed little by age group
Stinson and Bhat (2003)	USA	3145 individuals in Texas (mostly avid bicyclists who use computers)	Older respondents associated a higher disutility for routes with car parking; however, as for roadway class, the impact of age was small Older people had a marginally higher preference for wide near-side lanes, and disliked major intersections more than younger people	The differential preference for residential streets (compared to minor arterials) is small: even for a cyclist 100 years old, the magnitude on the minor arterial coefficient drops from –0.77 to –0.69 Variations across individuals are marginal compared to the main effects
Tilahun, Levinson, and Krizek (2007)	USA	167 employees from University of Minnesota, excluding students and faculty		Gender was not significant for probability of choosing a higher quality route
Tilahun et al. (2007)	USA	As above		Age was not significant for probability of choosing a higher quality route
Tin Tin et al. (2010)	New Zealand	2469 cyclists, aged 16+, enrolled in the 2006 Wattyl Lake Taupo Cycle Challenge	Female cyclists were more likely to report the importance of all factors in encouraging their cycling, including more bicycle paths and lanes	Men and women both rated bicycle lanes and bicycle paths highly (both rating lanes higher than paths)
Tin Tin et al. (2010)	New Zealand	2469 cyclists, aged 16 years or over, who had enrolled in the 2006 Wattyl Lake Taupo Cycle Challenge	People aged 35+ (particularly over 50s) were more likely to report “more bicycle paths” would encourage them to cycle more
Tiwari (2014)	India	Review including report of survey of current bicyclists and potential bicyclists in Pune, India		Preferences of females and males for bicycle routes showed similar trends except a few variables; differences were slight
Twaddle, Hall, and Bracic (2010)	Canada	Staff and students at University of Calgary, particularly potential or current cyclists	Females were more concerned than males about safety issues. Significant differences were found for “I do not know a safe route” and “I feel unsafe riding on roads” Males were more likely than females to indicate a desire for wide curb lanes [shared with general traffic]	There was no significant difference by gender in selection of any on-route improvements. Females were found to share similar preferences with males, high proportions of both wanting bicycle lanes, more pathways, and more direct routes.
Twaddle et al. (2010)	Canada	Staff and students at University of Calgary, particularly potential or current cyclists	Although all females were likely to indicate safety concerns prevent them from commuting by bicycle, the type of safety concern differs by age. Younger females are unsure about the route to take, with older females more concerned with feeling unsafe riding on the road
Van Holle et al. (2014)	Belgium	59 middle-aged adults living in urban or semi-urban areas across Flanders and the Brussels Capital region	For observed characteristics included in the “choice task”: “evenness of the cycle path”, “presence of new elements”, “presence of historic elements” and “safety for crossing the street”, associations with proportion of invitingness for transportation cycling were only found in females, with results not significant in males	Moderating effects of gender on the association between the environmental characteristics and proportion of environmental invitingness for transportation cycling were absent in the final model for the choice task and the cognitive task
Vliet (2014)	The Netherlands	200 respondents from various parts of the Netherlands; mixed recruitment methods		Gender (and age) was not a significant factor in bicycle mode choice for short-distance commuting
Wardman, Tight, and Page (2007)	UK	1996 commuters in four English cities, having removed 60% judged never likely to contemplate cycling		No interaction effect between cycling-specific variables and gender or age
Westerdijk (1990)	UK/Sweden/Netherlands	284 cyclists and pedestrians aged 20+ in 3 countries (50 in Great Britain, 121 in Sweden and 113 in the Netherlands)		Distance, pleasantness and traffic safety were the most important attributes for cyclists, but few differences were found in the importance of attribute weights between male and female subjects, or older and younger groups
Winters and Teschke (2010)	Canada	1402 adult current and potential cyclists, that is, the “near market” for cycling in Vancouver, Canada	Females scored low preference routes even lower than males The two least preferred route types were major streets with no facilities, with or without parking (16% likely to choose). Only 79 respondents were “very likely” to choose to ride on major streets with parked cars. They represented a unique subpopulation: 22.6% regular cyclists (vs. 8.1% overall), mainly male (66.5%), aged 25–34, with a lower likelihood of having children (22.3% vs. 46.8%)	Virtually no differences in mean scores between males and females for the six most preferred route types (paved-off street paths for bikes only, paved off-street multiuse paths, unpaved off-street multi-use paths, cycle path next to major street separated by barrier, residential streets marked as bike routes with traffic calming, residential streets marked as bike routes)
Winters and Teschke (2010)	Canada	As above		Age was not in general a significant predictor of route choice preferences
Wooliscroft and Ganglmair-Wooliscroft (2014)	New Zealand	573 residents of New Zealand aged 18+		No statistical difference in the average part-worth rating of availability of cycle lanes by gender
Wooliscroft and Ganglmair-Wooliscroft (2014)	New Zealand	573 residents of New Zealand aged 18+	Age had some impact on the average part-worth of the availability of cycle lanes. Older respondents (over 50 years) assign them less utility than young respondents	Most results showed no significant differences by demographic group

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