Positive youth development outcomes and environmental education: a review of research

Figures & data

Table 1. Features of Positive Youth Development Settings (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2002, pp. 7–10).

Physical and psychological safety and security
Structure that is developmentally appropriate, with clear expectations for behaviour as well as increasing opportunities to make decisions, to participate in governance and rule-making, and to take on leadership roles as one matures and gains more expertise
Emotional and moral support
Opportunities for adolescents to experience supportive adult relationship
Opportunities to learn how to form close, durable human relationships with peers that support and reinforce healthy behaviours
Opportunities to feel a sense of belonging and being valued
Opportunities to develop positive social values and norms
Opportunities for skill building and mastery
Opportunities to develop confidence in one’s abilities to master one’s environment (a sense of personal efficacy)
Opportunities to make a contribution to one’s community and to develop a sense of mattering
Strong links between families, schools, and broader community resources

Table 2. Practices and Intended Outcomes of PYD and EE, Compared.

Positive Youth Development, ‘Five Cs’ (Lerner et al., 2005)	Environmental Education Basic Principles (UNESCO, 1978)	Environmental Education Strategies (Monroe et al., 2008)
Competence	Knowledge and Skills	Convey information
Confidence	Awareness and Attitudes	Improve skills
Connection	Awareness and Attitudes	Build understanding
Caring	Awareness and Attitudes	Build understanding
Character	Awareness and Attitudes	Enable sustainable actions
Contribution	Citizen Action Engagement	Enable sustainable actions

Table 3. Search terms.

Search terms related to youth	youth OR ‘young people’ OR children OR kids OR teenagers OR teens OR tweens OR adolescents OR ‘high school’ OR ‘middle school’ OR ‘junior high’ OR ‘secondary school’ OR ‘primary school’ OR ‘elementary school’ OR ‘afterschool’ OR ‘after school’ OR ‘out of school time’
Search terms related to environmental education	‘environmental education’ OR ‘conservation education’ OR ‘education for sustainability’ OR ‘sustainability education’ OR ‘education for sustainable development’ OR ‘environmental action projects’ OR ‘outdoor education’ OR ‘outdoor learning’ OR ‘place based education’
Search terms related to PYD	‘youth development’ OR ‘whole child’ OR ‘well being’ OR wellbeing OR thriving OR thrive OR ‘moral development’ OR ‘social development’ OR ‘emotional development’ OR ‘psychological development’ OR ‘physical development’ OR ‘intellectual development’ OR ‘cognitive development’ OR ‘personal development’ OR ‘pro social’ OR prosocial OR ‘self efficacy’ OR ‘leadership’ OR ‘problem solving’ OR ‘decision making’ OR empathy OR ‘self worth’ OR mastery OR responsibility OR autonomy OR identity OR agency OR resilience OR purpose OR 5Cs OR 6Cs OR competence OR confidence OR connection OR contribution OR character OR caring OR compassion OR belonging OR relationships OR safety

Figure 1. PRISMA flowchart.

Table 4. Suggested Positive Youth Development outcomes used in the screening process.

Agency Autonomy Behavioural development Belief in the future Belonging Bonding Caring Character Cognitive development Compassion Competence Confidence Connection Contribution Decision-making

Emotional development Empathy Identity Influence Intellectual development Knowledge Leadership Mastery and future Membership Moral development Participation Personal development Physical development Problem-solving Prosocial norms

Psychological development Purpose Relationship building Resilience Responsibility Safety Self-determination Self-efficacy Self-worth Skills Social development Spirituality Thriving Well-being

Table 5. Five main coding categories of the codebook used for initial coding.

Main coding category	Child codes
Article information	Journal, Publication date, Abstract, Title, Keywords
Study information	Research design, Data collection methods, Number of programmes studies, Study location
Programme information	Participant age, Participant demographics (other than age), Programme length, Programme type
Programme strategies	Child codes for this category were completely emergent and included codes such as experiential learning, outdoor learning, and storytelling
Programme outcomes	PYD outcomes, Non-PYD outcomes, Level of findings for PYD outcomes

Table 6. Frequency of PYD Outcomes Based on the 5Cs Model (Lerner et al., 2005).

PYD Outcome (5Cs Category)	# of Studies (n = 60)	Definition from Lerner et al. (2005, p. 23)	Examples of Associated Codes
Competence	40	Positive view of one’s actions in domain-specific areas including social, academic, cognitive, and vocational.	Academic achievement, social development, leadership, career planning, critical thinking, decision making
Confidence	33	An internal sense of overall positive self-worth and self-efficacy; one’s global self-regard, as opposed to domain-specific beliefs.	Self-efficacy, agency, empowerment, sense of accomplishment or pride, action competence
Connection	25	Positive bonds with people and institutions that are reflected in bidirectional exchanges between the individual and peers, family, school, and community in which both parties contribute to the relationship.	Social connections, sense of belonging, sense of community
Character	16	Respect for societal and cultural rules, possession of standards for correct behaviours, a sense of right and wrong (morality), and integrity.	Civic responsibility, citizenship, moral development
Caring	7	A sense of sympathy and empathy for others.	Forming caring relationships, empathy for others, care and consideration for others

Figure 2. Study characteristics including publication year, location, and designs.

Figure 3. Participant and programme characteristics.

Table 7. Programme Strategies and Approaches to Support PYD in Environmental Education.

(1) Creating meaningful connections to the daily lives of young people, such as through place-based and community-based approaches

(2) Developing programmes that are youth-centred and/or youth-led

(3) Providing opportunities for teamwork and collaboration

(4) Incorporating environmental action into the programme

(5) Using experiential learning involving direct experience and focused reflection

(6) Conducting part or all of the programme in a nature-rich and/or outdoor setting

(7) Giving explicit, direct instruction to develop desired, targeted knowledge, skills, and dispositions

(8) Including the humanities, such as art, theatre, music, and literature, as programme activities

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