Living standards and land – longitudinal village level perspectives from five African countries: broad based improvements amid rural differentiation

Figures & data

Table 1. Countries, regions, villages, sample sizes, 2013/2015.

Country	Region	Village	N
Ghana	Eastern	Akatawia	61
		Asitey	64
		Gyidi	60
		Apaa	63
	Upper East	Ganne	75
		Doba	71
		Zanlerigu	73
		Shia	71
Kenya	Kakamega	Shikomoli	30
		Ekero	30
		Chegulo	30
		Munyuki	31
		Mukuyu	29
	Nyeri	Gatondo/Thegenge	30
		Icuga/Gathumbi	30
		Kiambii	30
		Gatagati	30
		Irigithathi	30
Malawi	Ntchisi	Nkhwangwa	50
		Chikwanje	50
	Thiwi Lifidzi	Khasu	49
		Kansepa	50
	Bwanje Valley	Kamphale/Kabulika	50
		Dziko	50
	Shire Highlands	Ngolanga	51
		Mangomba	52
Tanzania	Morogoro	Idete	38
		Katurukila	42
		Kiberege	42
		Mbingu	41
		Njage	39
	Iringa	Ihemi	35
		Kipaduka	41
		Isele	39
		Kitelewasi	39
		Kasanga	39
Zambia	Mazabuka	Nikantaka	50
		Dumba	53
		Oliver	55
	Mkushi	Mkwezi	57
		Nkumbi	60
		Chilekwa	53
		Kalombe	52
		Musofu	46

Table 2. Share of households in the categories ‘wealthy’ and ‘poor’.

	Wealthyhouseholds				Poorhouseholds
Country	2002	2013/15	Diff.	Sig,	2002	2013/15	Diff.	Sig.
GHANA
Akatawia	0.02	0.07	0.04		0.24	0.05	-0.20	***
Asitey	0.28	0.22	-0.06		0.00	0.05	0.05	*
Gyidi	0.38	0.78	0.40	***	0.10	0.00	-0.10	**
Apaa	0.00	0.13	0.13	***	0.21	0.02	-0.19	***
Ganne	0.00	0.03	0.03		0.15	0.04	-0.11	**
Doba	0.04	0.15	0.12	**	0.08	0.03	-0.05
Zanlerigu	0.00	0.03	0.03		0.29	0.00	-0.29	***
Shia	0.00	0.03	0.03		0.23	0.11	-0.12	*
KENYA
Shikomoli	0.02	0.00	-0.02		0.03	0.00	-0.03
Ekero	0.28	0.03	-0.25	***	0.07	0.00	-0.07
Chegulo	0.38	0.20	-0.18	**	0.17	0.07	-0.11
Munyuki	0.00	0.10	0.10		0.07	0.00	-0.07
Mukuyu	0.00	0.03	0.03		0.03	0.00	-0.03
Gatondo/Thegenge	0.04	0.70	0.66	***	0.00	0.00	0.00
Icuga/Gathumbi	0.00	0.77	0.77	***	0.00	0.00	0.00
Kiambii	0.00	0.53	0.53	***	0.00	0.00	0.00
Gatagati	0.93	0.70	-0.23	*	0.00	0.00	0.00
Irigithathi	0.09	0.60	0.51	***	0.00	0.00	0.00
MALAWI
Nkhwangwa	0.02	0.06	0.04		0.42	0.28	-0.14
Chikwanje	0.02	0.14	0.12	**	0.16	0.18	0.02
Khasu	0.00	0.06	0.06	*	0.23	0.27	0.03
Kansepa	0.02	0.04	0.02		0.25	0.26	0.01
Kamphale/Kabulika	0.02	0.18	0.16	***	0.28	0.18	-0.10
Dziko	0.02	0.08	0.06		0.12	0.33	0.21	**
Ngolanga	0.00	0.16	0.16	***	0.27	0.06	-0.21	***
Mangomba	0.04	0.19	0.15	**	0.31	0.10	-0.21	***
TANZANIA
Idete	0.25	0.50	0.25	**	0.13	0.03	-0.10	*
Katurukila	0.15	0.62	0.47	***	0.13	0.00	-0.13	**
Kiberege	0.18	0.31	0.13		0.21	0.05	-0.16	**
Mbingu	0.15	0.56	0.41	***	0.20	0.07	-0.13	*
Njage	0.12	0.33	0.21	**	0.15	0.05	-0.10
Ihemi	0.08	0.34	0.27	***	0.10	0.06	-0.04
Kipaduka	0.02	0.29	0.27	***	0.19	0.12	-0.06
Isele	0.12	0.28	0.16	*	0.24	0.10	-0.14	*
Kitelewasi	0.15	0.54	0.39	***	0.18	0.00	-0.18	***
Kasanga	0.25	0.51	0.26	**	0.10	0.00	-0.10	**
ZAMBIA
Nikantaka	0.02	0.50	0.48	***	0.02	0.24	0.22	***
Mkwezi	0.00	0.32	0.32	***	0.12	0.04	-0.09
Nkumbi	0.18	0.35	0.17	**	0.09	0.00	-0.09	**
Dumba	0.06	0.64	0.58	***	0.30	0.02	-0.28	***
Oliver	0.10	0.49	0.40	***	0.21	0.18	-0.02
Chilekwa	0.00	0.28	0.28	***	0.06	0.04	-0.02
Kalombe	0.00	0.02	0.02		0.21	0.02	-0.20	**
Musofu	0.05	0.04	-0.01		0.15	0.30	0.15

Figure 1. Villages showing generalized improvements, by country and region. Villages are denoted by stars. The maps show major road networks and cities. The map is an original map based on data from open sources: Map data from naturalearthdata.com, ESRI World Cities and GRIP; maps drawn by Klara Hällqvist.

Table 3. Villages showing generalized improvements, by country and region.

Country	Village	Region	Region type
Ghana	Gyedi	Eastern	Dynamic
Kenya	Gatondo	Nyeri	Dynamic
	Icuga	Nyeri	Dynamic
	Kiambii	Nyeri	Dynamic
	Irigithathi	Nyeri	Dynamic
Tanzania	Idete	Morogoro	Dynamic
	Mbingu	Morogoro	Dynamic
	Kitelewasi	Iringa	Less dynamic
	Kasanga	Iringa	Less dynamic
Zambia	Dumba	Mazabuka	Dynamic

Table 4. Share of households who had access to non-farm income, 2002 and 2013/2015, by village. The italicized villages are those that showed generalized improvements over time (see Table 3).

Country	2002	2013/2015	Diff.	Sig.
GHANA
Akatawia	0.60	0.66	0.06
Asitey	0.66	0.75	0.09
Gyidi	0.46	0.70	0.24	***
Apaa	0.33	0.57	0.24	**
Ganne	0.25	0.84	0.59	***
Doba	0.37	0.73	0.36	***
Zanlerigu	0.67	0.75	0.08
Shia	0.58	0.92	0.34	***
KENYA
Shikomoli	0.73	0.53	−0.20
Ekero	0.83	0.60	−0.23	**
Chegulo	0.90	0.77	−0.13
Munyuki	0.84	0.58	−0.26	**
Mukuyu	0.50	0.76	0.26	**
Gatondo/Thegenge	0.47	0.53	0.07
Icuga/Gathumbi	0.70	0.17	−0.53	***
Kiambii	0.50	0.27	−0.23	*
Gatagati	0.71	0.33	−0.38	***
Irigithathi	0.80	0.87	0.07
MALAWI
Nkhwangwa	0.78	0.57	−0.21	**
Chikwanje	0.38	0.36	−0.02
Khasu	0.43	0.33	−0.10
Kansepa	0.60	0.56	−0.04
Kamphale/Kabulika	0.60	0.40	−0.20	**
Dziko	0.66	0.35	−0.31	***
Ngolanga	0.94	0.75	−0.20	***
Mangomba	0.94	0.60	−0.34	***
TANZANIA
Idete	0.73	0.45	−0.28	**
Katurukila	0.49	0.40	−0.08
Kiberege	0.64	0.48	−0.16
Mbingu	0.80	0.51	−0.29	***
Njage	0.46	0.49	0.02
Ihemi	0.75	0.57	−0.18
Kipaduka	0.74	0.51	−0.23	**
Isele	0.83	0.54	−0.29	***
Kitelewasi	0.73	0.36	−0.37	***
Kasanga	0.93	0.59	−0.34	***
ZAMBIA
Nikantaka	0.70	0.82	0.12
Mkwezi	0.59	0.74	0.15
Nkumbi	0.67	0.47	−0.20	**
Dumba	0.72	0.04	−0.68	***
Oliver	0.29	0.71	0.42	***
Chilekwa	0.49	0.15	−0.33	***
Kalombe	0.14	0.12	−0.03
Musofu	0.30	0.26	−0.04

Table 5. Average share of household income generated through non-farm income, 2008 and 2013/2015, by village. The italicized villages are those that showed generalized improvements over time (see Table 3).

Country	2008	2013/2015	Diff.	Sig.
GHANA
Akatawia	0.13	0.28	0.15	***
Asitey	0.18	0.47	0.29	***
Gyidi	0.18	0.28	0.09	*
Apaa	0.11	0.26	0.15	***
Ganne	0.30	0.27	−0.04
Doba	0.43	0.38	−0.05
Zanlerigu	0.39	0.50	0.11	*
Shia	0.49	0.63	0.14	**
KENYA
Shikomoli	0.14	0.36	0.22	**
Ekero	0.04	0.24	0.20	***
Chegulo	0.16	0.46	0.30	***
Munyuki	0.22	0.23	0.01
Mukuyu	0.25	0.40	0.15
Gatondo/Thegenge	0.22	0.20	−0.02
Icuga/Gathumbi	0.22	0.08	−0.13	**
Kiambii	0.26	0.10	−0.16	**
Gatagati	0.05	0.12	0.07
Irigithathi	0.22	0.35	0.13	*
MALAWI
Nkhwangwa	0.33	0.19	−0.13	**
Chikwanje	0.11	0.07	−0.04
Khasu	0.13	0.08	−0.04
Kansepa	0.27	0.17	−0.10	*
Kamphale/Kabulika	0.30	0.18	−0.12	*
Dziko	0.20	0.12	−0.08
Ngolanga	0.64	0.58	−0.06
Mangomba	0.46	0.41	−0.04
TANZANIA
Idete	0.20	0.22	0.02
Katurukila	0.23	0.21	−0.02
Kiberege	0.40	0.34	−0.05
Mbingu	0.32	0.17	−0.15	**
Njage	0.17	0.23	0.05
Ihemi	0.41	0.33	−0.07
Kipaduka	0.39	0.29	−0.11
Isele	0.44	0.25	−0.19	**
Kitelewasi	0.28	0.12	−0.16	**
Kasanga	0.35	0.37	0.01
ZAMBIA
Nikantaka	0.30	0.37	0.06
Mkwezi	0.34	0.19	−0.16	***
Nkumbi	0.37	0.21	−0.15	**
Dumba	0.27	0.03	−0.24	***
Oliver	0.13	0.18	0.05
Chilekwa	0.24	0.05	−0.18	***
Kalombe	0.23	0.07	−0.16	**
Musofu	0.34	0.11	−0.23	***

Table 6. Gini coefficients for cultivated farm size, 2002 and 2013/2015 by village. The italicized villages are those that showed generalized improvements over time (see Table 3).

	Gini coef.
Country	2002	2013/2015	Diff.
GHANA
Akatawia	0.232	0.312	0.080
Asitey	0.285	0.457	0.172
Gyidi	0.375	0.360	−0.015
Apaa	0.379	0.456	0.077
Ganne	0.213	0.405	0.192
Doba	0.280	0.414	0.134
Zanlerigu	0.343	0.305	−0.038
Shia	0.356	0.403	0.047
KENYA
Shikomoli	0.436	0.385	−0.051
Ekero	0.250	0.314	0.064
Chegulo	0.368	0.366	−0.002
Munyuki	0.226	0.296	0.070
Mukuyu	0.242	0.382	0.140
Gatondo/Thegenge	0.317	0.292	−0.025
Icuga/Gathumbi	0.267	0.315	0.048
Kiambii	0.356	0.342	−0.014
Gatagati	0.514	0.294	−0.220
Irigithathi	0.298	0.567	0.269
MALAWI
Nkhwangwa	0.268	0.363	0.095
Chikwanje	0.285	0.305	0.020
Khasu	0.238	0.317	0.079
Kansepa	0.324	0.324	0.000
Kamphale/Kabulika	0.340	0.314	−0.026
Dziko	0.311	0.282	−0.029
Ngolanga	0.318	0.395	0.077
Mangomba	0.278	0.335	0.057
TANZANIA
Idete	0.368	0.339	−0.029
Katurukila	0.352	0.503	0.151
Kiberege	0.281	0.588	0.307
Mbingu	0.180	0.326	0.146
Njage	0.349	0.486	0.137
Ihemi	0.268	0.348	0.080
Kipaduka	0.368	0.455	0.087
Isele	0.274	0.428	0.154
Kitelewasi	0.256	0.464	0.208
Kasanga	0.277	0.364	0.087
ZAMBIA
Nikantaka	0.475	0.535	0.060
Mkwezi	0.314	0.295	−0.019
Nkumbi	0.256	0.275	0.019
Dumba	0.317	0.495	0.178
Oliver	0.332	0.659	0.327
Chilekwa	0.479	0.670	0.191
Kalombe	0.384	0.319	−0.065
Musofu	0.430	0.502	0.072

Table 7. Changes in Gini coefficients for cultivated farm size by village in the ‘top 10’ villages.

Country	Village	2002	2013/2015	Diff.
Ghana	Gyedi	0.375	0.360	−0.015
Kenya	Gatondo	0.317	0.292	−0.025
	Icuga	0.267	0.315	0.048
	Kiambii	0.356	0.342	−0.014
	Irigithathi	0.298	0.567	0.269
Tanzania	Idete	0.368	0.339	−0.029
	Mbingu	0.180	0.326	0.146
	Kitelewasi	0.256	0.464	0.208
	Kasanga	0.277	0.364	0.087
Zambia	Dumba	0.317	0.495	0.178

Table

	2002		2013/2015
	Mean	N	Mean	N
GHANA
Akatawia	1.68	45	3.91	61
Asitey	2.03	47	2.51	64
Gyidi	3.06	63	4.43	60
Apaa	3.94	47	3.37	63
Ganne	1.95	55	2.33	75
Doba	2.08	51	2.43	71
Zanlerigu	2.13	52	2.30	73
Shia	2.28	52	1.89	71
KENYA
Shikomoli	0.69	30	0.54	30
Ekero	0.94	30	1.07	30
Chegulo	1.83	29	1.58	30
Munyuki	1.24	31	1.27	31
Mukuyu	1.46	30	1.20	29
Gatondo/Thegenge	0.91	30	0.82	30
Icuga/Gathumbi	0.53	30	0.71	30
Kiambii	0.81	30	0.88	30
Gatagati	0.74	28	1.09	30
Irigithathi	0.55	30	1.01	30
MALAWI
Nkhwangwa	1.59	50	1.24	49
Chikwanje	2.16	47	1.97	49
Khasu	1.01	47	1.10	49
Kansepa	0.96	45	1.34	50
Kamphale/Kabulika	1.45	50	1.44	45
Dziko	1.08	49	0.97	48
Ngolanga	0.84	50	0.72	51
Mangomba	0.82	49	0.97	48
TANZANIA
Idete	1.60	40	2.14	38
Katurukila	2.03	38	2.32	42
Kiberege	1.47	38	1.29	42
Mbingu	2.03	40	4.07	41
Njage	2.14	39	1.74	39
Ihemi	1.89	40	1.46	35
Kipaduka	3.00	43	3.36	40
Isele	2.87	41	3.61	38
Kitelewasi	1.24	40	1.43	39
Kasanga	1.26	40	2.33	39
ZAMBIA
Nikantaka	3.05	44	3.32	50
Mkwezi	1.96	49	2.39	56
Nkumbi	2.86	45	2.51	58
Dumba	2.89	43	7.98	53
Oliver	4.26	71	4.62	55
Chilekwa	2.99	35	4.71	52
Kalombe	2.63	28	2.16	52
Musofu	2.43	20	4.06	45