A semantic typology of emotion nouns in Australian Indigenous languages

Figures & data

Figure 1 Map of languages included in the sample

Figure 2 Number of languages per number of recorded emotion nouns

Table 1 Number of documented emotion nouns by cluster

	anger	feeling	shame	love	fear	sorrow	jealousy	happiness	anxiety	hatred	greed	surprise	calmness	courage	Other^a
Languages	28	24	24	23	23	19	16	13	10	5	5	4	3	3	5
Nouns	46	39	29	50	37	30	19	16	12	6	5	4	3	3	8

Note: ^a The nouns grouped into semantic clusters include those relating to the concepts of “pride”, “hesitation”, “satisfaction from retribution”, “disappointment”, “relief” and “dissatisfaction”.

Figure 3 Map of languages with recorded anger nouns

Table 2 Reflexes of proto-Pama-Nyungan *kuli in the data

Language	Lexeme	POS	Gloss / definition	Source
Kuku-Yalanji	kuli	noun	1. anger; 2. poison; 3. trouble	(Hershberger & Hershberger, 1982, p. 91)
Kuuk Thaayorre	ngeengk-kul	noun	wrath, rage (“anger, lit. belly-lap” in Gaby, 2008)	(Hall & Foote, 1992)
Walmajarri	kuli	nom	anger; belligerence/belligerent; fight, physical struggle; war	(Richards & Hudson, 1990, p. 94)
Warlpiri	kulu / kuli	nom	anger, fight, trouble, aggression, argument, altercation, disagreement, danger, harm, hostility. [state or activity which may result in harm or unpleasantness]	(Laughren et al., 2022, pp. 265, 268)
Wik Mungkan	kul	noun, adj	1. (n) grass type, 2. (n) handle (e.g. of bag), 3. (n, adj) angry, wild	(Kilham et al., 2011)
Wik-Ngathan	kul	noun, adv	anger; angrily	(Sutton, 1995, p. 27)
Wiradjuri^a	gulaa	noun	anger; coolah grass	(Grant & Rudder, 2005, p. 262)
Yir-Yoront	(ngerr-)kol	noun	anger, rage, angry, wild	(Alpher, 1991, p. 183)
			1. anger, 2. soldiers, men on a revenge expedition, 3. very many, big mobs	(Alpher, 2006, p. 5)
Yugambeh	gulah	noun	anger	(Sharpe, 2020, p. 106)

Note: ^a Wiradjuri gulaa is not incorporated in the proof for proto-Pama-Nyungan *kuli; however, it is included here given its phonemic similarity (/gʊlɑ:/) to Yugambeh gulah (/gʊlɑ:/), which the author notes is “prob. from early pidgin known from Sydney area” (Sharpe, 2020, p. 106). Also to note is that Kriol gula means “trouble, fight, argument, aggression”, etymologically from the Sydney area as well (Ponsonnet, 2018, p. 108).

Table

(1)	Alyawarr aha nom. “anger”
	Nga apek aha ilkwakert nga apek ahelengkwarl aneyel. Ayengan mwerrarl aneyel ahewenyarl.
	“Perhaps you have a lot of anger you’re aggressive.” “I’m alright I’m not angry.” (Green et al., 2019, p. 26)
(2)	Kaytetye amperne
	n. “hungry, starving”
	v.i. 1. “be very hungry, starving”; 2. “get angry, be furious”^7
	Ampernarrengele atyenge alarrenhe mpele artweyele apeke no chance etnyenhe ampernarrengele.
	“He was furious and hit me. I had no chance, he was that angry.” (Turpin & Ross, 2012, p. 107)

Figure 4 Map of languages with recorded feeling nouns

Table 3 Examples of lexical entries for feeling nouns

Language	Lexeme	POS	Gloss / definition	Source
Arrernte	utnenge	nom	life, being, soul, spirit (of living being) (It is the source of vitality, well-being and sense of purpose, and can be taken away by magic, getting a fright or some bad or tragic event.) liveliness, vitality, life the spirit of a place or a dreaming; the solid stuff that living things are made of; flesh, wood.	(Henderson & Dobson, 1994, p. 617)
Burarra	ganyjarr	noun	motivation, inner urge or calling; assignment; authority; power	(Glasgow & Glasgow, 2011)
Jawoyn	yilk	noun	guts, spirit, gumption	(Merlan & Jacq, 2005, p. 16)
Kaurna	muiyu	noun	feelings, inclination, attachment, love (“fain”)	(Amery, 2020, p. 275)
Nunggubuyu	ramarr	noun	thought, feeling; emotion, desire	(Heath, 1982, p. 156; Hore, 1994)
Warlpiri	pirlirrpa	nom	spirit, soul, life-force mind, feeling, disposition, attitude, belief (extension) image, portrait, picture, photograph, sound recording [reproduction or copy of the sound and/or image of some entity]	(Laughren et al., 2022, pp. 709–710)
Wik Mungkan	Ngangk^a	noun	1. heart and stomach area	(Kilham et al., 2011)
			2. soul
Yir-Yoront	morr-thaw	noun	1. body, outward manifestation of bodily state	(Alpher, 1991, pp. 517–518)
			2. mood, state of health, condition of the body or emotions

Note: ^a Kilham et al. (2011) note that “ngangk is used in many compounds and phrases … where the emotions are deeply involved”.

Table

(3)	Gurindji, kawurru, nom.
	“1. lower chest”
	“2. seat of feelings, gut feeling, ‘heart creak’ in Kriol. This is the feeling you get when your child, husband or wife approaches”
	“3. life force, soul”. (Meakins et al., 2013, p. 155)

Figure 5 Map of languages with recorded shame nouns

Table 4 Shared roots for shame nouns

Language	Lexeme	POS	Gloss / definition	Source
Alyawarr	nyerr	nom	1. respect, reserve, reticence	(Green et al., 2019, pp. 295–296)
			2. behaviour that is shameful or embarrassing
			3. shy
Arrernte	nyerre	nom	Synonym with apure	(Henderson & Dobson, 1994, pp. 189, 516)
			(1. the feeling someone gets about doing something wrong, stupid or inappropriate and what other people think or say about that; shyness, embarrassment, shame, not sure of the right way to behave. 2. the way people behave when they feel [apure]. This usually involves not looking at the people who make them feel this way, not speaking to them directly or perhaps at all, or moving away from them. 3. behaving [apure] when it is appropriate to do this; knowing what kind of behaviour is wrong, stupid or inappropriate)
Jiwarli	kurnda	nom	shame politeness	(Austin, 1992, p. 16)
Kaytetye	nyerre	nom	ashamed, embarrassed, not feeling confident shameful behaviour, someone who has broken the law, acting shamefully, acting disgracefully proper behaviour, such as being quiet and reserved when certain kin are around shy, reserved, timid, reticent tame	(Turpin & Ross, 2012, p. 523)
Kukatja	kurnta	nom	shame, respect, embarrassment, coyness, shyness	(Peile & Clynes, n.d.)
Martuthunira	kurnta	nom, verb	(nom) shame; respect language style; (v) be ashamed, to show respect; to speak respectfully	(Dench, 1994, p. 334)
Martu Wangka	kurnta	nom	shy; shame; ashamed	(Marsh, 1992, p. 137)
Nyungar	kurnda	nom	shame	(Dench, n.d.)
Pintupi / Luritja	kunta	nom	shyness; respectful; reticence; reluctance to be involved; has connotation of fearing to make the wrong move which may result in scolding or harm	(Hansen & Hansen, 1992, p. 35)
Warlpiri	kurnta	nom, preverb	shame, shameful, shyness, embarrassment, reserve, timidity, reticence satisfied (having dealt out retribution), vindicated	(Laughren et al., 2022, p. 294)
			[feeling of retribution at having dealt out punishment to someone that one hates, or who has done something that harmed or displeased]

Figure 6 Map of languages with recorded love nouns

Table

(4)	Wiradjuri, ngurrbul, n.
	“love, amorous, friendship” (Grant & Rudder, 2005, p. 309)
(5)	Kalaw Kawaw Ya, mam(a), n.
	“love, affection, caring, passion” (Ober & Kennedy, 2006)
(6)	Kuku-Yalanji, kuru, n.
	1. “woman's affection/love/lust to a man”
	2. “grub found in dry grass tree” (Hershberger & Hershberger, 1982, p. 98)

Table

(7)	Gumbaynggirr, bilirr
	n. “1. dysentery; 2. greed, gluttony, lust, excessive desire or hunger”
	adj. “greedy, gluttonous, lustful” (Morelli, 2015, p. 21)

Figure 7 Map of languages with a recorded fear noun

Table 5 Shared roots for fear nouns

Language	Lexeme	POS	Gloss / definition	Source
Alyawarr	ater	nom	fright, fear	(Green et al., 2019, p. 158)
Kaytetye	atere	nom	frightened, afraid, scared; wild, feral animal; fear	(Turpin, 2002; Turpin & Ross, 2012, p. 233)
Kukatja	karrarta	nom	fear	(Peile & Clynes, n.d.)
Kukatja	ngurlu	nom	fear	(Peile & Clynes, n.d.)
Martu Wangka	karrata	nom	fearful; fright; shock	(Marsh, 1992, p. 106)
Martu Wangka	ngurlu	nom	fear, fright; sacred (of object or ceremony); taboo; the sacred area	(Marsh, 1992, p. 223)
Nyangumarta	karrarta	noun	fear	(Geytenbeek, n.d.)
Pintupi/Luritja	ngulu	nom	fear, afraid	(Hansen & Hansen, 1992, p. 85)

Table

(8)	Nyangumarta, ralpurr, n.
	“sudden fear. For example when something unexpectedly brushes past you in the night.” (Geytenbeek, n.d.)
(9)	Nyangumarta, jumparna, v.t.
	“he sensed it, he knew it was coming. This verb does not have the component of fear that is in ralpurr.” (Geytenbeek, n.d.)

Figure 8 Map of languages with a recorded sorrow noun

Table 6 Examples of lexical entries for sorrow nouns

Language	Lexeme	POS	Gloss / definition	Source
Nungubuyu	warngayuny	noun	pity, feeling sorry (not common)^a	(Heath, 1982, p. 224)
Mawng	wurlk	noun, coverb	(n) sorrow, sadness; (cv) 1. (with kingawun) be sad, sorrowful, 2. (with kinnyaka) swallow, eat, 3. (with kinnyatpi) have compassion, feel sorry for	(Singer et al., 2021, p. 224)
Wajarri	warritharra	nom	sorrow, the feeling of pining for someone or something; a longing feeling towards someone or something; pangs of unhappiness	(Mackman, 2012, p. 143)
Wiradjuri	ngarrarr	noun	sorry, sorrow, worry, trouble	(Grant & Rudder, 2005, p. 302)

Note: ^a Abstract noun derivative of verb warngayu- “to pity (someone), to feel sorry for” (Heath, 1982, p. 224).

Table

(10)	Mawng, wurlk
	n. “sorrow, sadness”
	cv. 1. (with kingawun) “be sad, sorrowful”, 2. (with kinnyaka) “swallow, eat”, 3. (with kinnyatpi) “have compassion, feel sorry for”
	Wurlk kapalkpa ngarrurru la kawararrken nuyu ja nakapa ja arrarrkpi ja imajungan.
	“Sorrow comes to us as they cry for the dead man.” (Singer et al., 2021, p. 224)

Table

(11)	Alywarr, alpwely, nom.
	“1. sad, sadness, 2. weak”
	Arelh yanhan alpwely aneyel ampeweny.
	“That woman there is sad because she has no kids” (Green et al., 2019, p. 59)
(12)	Diyari, walkarra, n.
	“sadness”
	nhani wilha walkarra-li ngana-yi kupa-nhi
	“The woman is sad for the child” (Austin, 2017, p. 5)

Table 7 Senses colexified in anger nouns (n = 46)

Approximate sense	Frequency across nouns
Fight, fight with, fighting	8
Argument	7
“Cheekiness”, belligerence	7
Trouble, conflict	7
Wild, wildness	4
Jealous, jealousy	3
Mean, meanness	3
Disagreement, danger	2
Disobedient	2
Harmful, hurt	2
Madness	2
Beast	1
Be hungry, starving	1
Coolah grass	1
Dangerous fish	1
Grass type; handle (e.g. of bag)	1
Opponent	1
Passion	1
Poison	1
Skinny	1
Ugliness	1
Very hot, fierce (of sun)	1
War	1

Table 8 Senses colexified in feeling nouns (n = 39)

Approximate sense	Frequency across nouns
Belly, stomach	4
Seat of emotions, of feelings	4
Authority, power	3
Heart	3
Wanting, desire	3
Belief, attitude	2
Chest, lower chest	2
Moderately, sort of (in spirit)	2
Arch of foot	1
Attachment, fain	1
Belly of coolamon	1
Body	1
Breath	1
Cockatiel	1
Down, underneath, underside, bottom	1
Guts	1
Inside (of plane), hold (of boat); bulge (in a fish trap)	1
Light (colour)	1
Middle (of body, as opposed to left and right)	1
Nerves	1
So that, in order to, then	1
Sorrow, sadness	1
Urine, urination	1
The solid stuff that living things are made of, flesh, wood	1
The spirit of a place or a dreaming	1
Thought	1

Table 9 Senses colexified in shame nouns (n = 29)

Approximate sense	Frequency across nouns
Shy, shyness	10
Respect, respectful	4
Reserve, reticence	4
Appropriate, proper behaviour	3
Tame, timid, timidity	3
Shameful	1
Shameful behaviour	1
Polite, politeness	1
Shield, cover	1
Stung, dug into, ground down	1
Respect language style, speak respectfully, show respect	1
Parents-in-law, polite way of referring to one’s spouse’s father and mother	1
Fear	1
Guilt	1

Table 10 Senses colexified in love nouns (n = 50)

Approximate sense	Frequency across nouns
Throat, Adam’s apple	5
Romance, flirtation	3
Friendship	2
Lover, beloved	2
Sex	2
Blood	1
Clitoris	1
Feelings, inclination	1
Generous, someone who looks after people	1
Greed, greedy	1
Grub found in dry grass tree	1
Heart	1
Hope	1
Incest, adultery, improper intercourse, wicked	1
Joy	1
Mating behaviour (of people and animals)	1
Request(s)	1
Promiscuity	1
Urine, urination	1

Table 11 Senses colexified in fear nouns (n = 37)

Approximate sense	Frequency across nouns
Coward, one who is afraid	2
Grandma, granny	1
Processionary Caterpillar	1
Sacred (of object or ceremony), taboo, sacred area	1
Shame	1
Timid	1
Wild, feral animal	1

Table 12 Senses colexified in sorrow nouns (n = 30)

Approximate sense	Frequency across nouns
One who has no food, shelter or belongings	3
Worry, anxiety	3
Alone, loneliness	1
Changed for the worse	1
Heart	1
Heavy, the state of the spirit after one has been sorcerized, fierce pain from sorcery or some external cause	1
One who is pining for relatives	1
Swallow, eat	1
Trouble	1
Weak, lazy	1

Table

(13)	Ngan’gi, ki, nom.
	“fight, argument”
	Ki wayingngi tyuk.
	“I’m getting angry (Anger is hotting me up).” (Reid & McTaggart, 2008, pp. 56, 134)

Table

(14)	Gamilaraay, Yuwaalaraay, & Yuwaalayaay, burriin, n.
	1. “shield, broad shield”
	2. “cover (Yuwaalayaay only). Anything used as a cover.”
	3. “shame (Yuwaalaraay only). Used in Walgett, an expression used when someone makes a mistake or gets caught out (a Charlie Kennedy word).” (Ash et al., 2003, p. 48)
(15)	Wiradjuri, giyal
	adj. “ashamed”
	n. “shame”
	adj. “stung, dug into, ground down” (Grant & Rudder, 2005, p. 259)

Table

(16)	Kaytetye, mpwenye, nom.
	“1. love, sex, romance, promiscuity”
	“2. mating behaviour (of people and animals)” (Turpin & Ross, 2012, pp. 481–482)

Table

(17)	Nyangumarta, ngarlu, n.
	1. “abdomen, belly, stomach”
	2. “seat of emotions, ‘heart’” (Geytenbeek, n.d.)

Table

(18)	body part  →	bodily locus  →	emotional, i.e. immaterial
	internal-organ noun →	seat-of-emotions noun →	feeling noun

Table

(19)	Pintupi/Luritja, lirri, witanpa, yiwinytji, and yunytju, nom.
	“Adam’s apple; throat; desire; used figuratively for love, sex desire, desire for food and objects; love for wife, children and relatives” (Hansen & Hansen, 1992, pp. 49, 179, 200, 204–205)

Table

(20)	Wajarri, warritharra, nom.
	“sorrow, the feeling of pining for someone or something; a longing feeling towards someone or something; pangs of unhappiness” (Mackman, 2012, p. 143)
(21)	Kalaw Kawaw Ya, kœrkabadh, n.
	“sorrow, sadness” (Ober & Kennedy, 2006)

Table 13 Number of colexifications by noun cluster paths.

	anger	feeling	shame	love	fear	sorrow	jealousy	happiness	anxiety	hatred	greed	surprise	calmness	courage	Other
Langs	28	24	24	23	23	19	16	13	10	5	5	4	3	3	5
Nouns	46	39	29	50	37	30	19	16	12	6	5	4	3	3	8
Paths	☺	♥	☺	☺/♥		♥
Mean	1.09	1.05	1.14	0.56	0.22	0.47	0.05	0.12	0.05	0.33	0.2	0.5	0	0

Note: ☺ = behavioural semantic pathway; ♥ = body-part semantic pathway. Mean: average (mean) number of colexifications with a non-emotional meaning, per noun.

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Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available from referenced resources in the public domain, listed in Appendix A, except for assorted data for Jaminjung, Ngarla, Nyangumarta and Nyungar (which were shared from private sources). This article was adapted and developed from Yacopetti’s Honours thesis.