Microalgae are not an umbrella solution for power industry waste abatement but could play a role in their valorization

Figures & data

Figure 1. Overview of generic microalgal metabolism. Green shaded area – chloroplast; pink folded area – mitochondrion; yellow area – cytoplasm. Membrane transporters of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur compounds have been marked with corresponding green, blue, and yellow icons.

3PG – 3-phosphoglycerate; BPG – Bisphoglyceric acid; GAP – Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate; Ru5P – Ribulose 5-phosphate; RuBP – Ribulose-1,5-disphosphate; Xu5P – Xylulose 5-phosphate; R5P – Ribulose 5-phosphate; S7P – Sedoheptulose 7-phosphate; DHAP – Dihydroxyacetone phosphate; SBP – Sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphate; E4P – Erythrose 4-phosphate; F6P – Fructose 6-phosphate; G6P – Glucose 6-phosphate; G1P – Glucose 1-phosphate; ADPG – Adenosine diphosphate glucose; Gluc – Glucose; Fru – Fructose; Suc – Sucrose; UDPG – Uridine diphosphate glucose; FBP – Fructose bisphosphate; PA – Phosphatidic acid; TAG – Triacylglycerol; FFA – Free fatty acid; FFA-CoA – free fatty acid-CoA; tE-ACP – Trans enolyl-ACP (acyl carrier protein); 3H-ACP – 3-hydroxyacyl ACP; 3KA-ACP – 3-ketoxyacyl ACP; acyl-ACP – Acyl-acyl carrier protein; Mal-CoA – Malonyl-CoA; Mal-ACP – Malonyl-ACP; Ac-CoA – Acetyl-CoA; PYR – Pyruvate; IPP – Isopentenyl pyrophosphate; DXP – 2,3-dihydroxy-4-oxo-pentoxy; DMAPP – Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate; GGPP – Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate; CIT – Citrate; OAA – Oxaloacetic acid; 2-OG – 2-Oxoglutaric acid; SU – Succinic acid ; APS – 2-aminophenol 4-sulfonic acid; Cys – Cysteine; Glu – Glutamate; Gln – Glutamine; ICIT – Isocitrate; SU-CoA – Succinate-CoA; 4HB – 4-hydroxybutyric acid; GLY – Glycine; MAL – Malate; FUM – Fumarate; AcAc-CoA – Aceto-acetyl-CoA; 3HB-CoA – 3-Hydroxybutyric Acid-CoA; Poly-3HB – poly-3-hydroxybutyrate; Poly(3HB-Co-4HB) – Poly (3-hydroxybutyrate co 4-hydroxybutyrate); 4HB-CoA – 4-hydroxybutyric acid-CoA. The figure was partly generated using Servier Medical Art, provided by Servier, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 unported license.

Figure 2. Power industry waste microalgal valorization scheme taking into consideration closing carbon (black), water (blue), nutrient (green), and low-grade heat (orange) loops and indicating processing steps (grey boxes) and potential products from algal biomass.

Table 1. Characteristics of microalgae-based flue gas sequestration.

Algal strain/flue gas source	Cultivation	Inorganic carbon source		Biomass		References
Photobioreactor systems
Chlorella sorokiniana UTEX® 1230 Flue gas from a cement plant Simulated Gas (SG) Real Gas (RG)	System: 20 L cylindrical acrylic PBR Light intensity: 55 ± 4 µmol/m^2s Photoperiod: 12 L:12D Temperature [°C]: 22 ± 5 (SG) 27 ± 4 (RG) Growth medium: Bold Basal Medium (BBM) N source: 0.3–0.7 g⋅L ^-1 NaNO3	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[35]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.040	0.158
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	ND	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		air enriched with real flue gas (RG)	air enriched with CO2 (SG)	ND	ND
Mixed cultures Coal-fired flue gas containing heavy metals from the beef processing industry	System: batch mode cultivation systems: polyethene bags with bubble columns each with 25 L (microalgal culture capacity) and 5 L (gas space) Light intensity: 1650.3 μmol m^-2s^-1 (sunlight) Photoperiod: 12 L:12D Temperature [°C]: ND Growth medium: Bold Basal Medium	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[36]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 11.24% SOx: 781.8 mgNm^-3 NOx: 423.9 mgNm^-3	CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND air	0.055	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		Cooling down during flow	ND	Cells contained high amounts of macro minerals (C, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S) and heavy metals (Al, B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn)	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		Flue gas in the air to achieve 1%, 3% and 5.5% of CO2	ND	ND	ND
Microalgal communities from UQ Lake and Storm Water Unfiltered coal-fired flue gas – real gas (RG) Simulated gas (SG)	System: outdoor 30 L PBRs with polyethene bags (15 L culturing volume and 15 L gas space) (RG); 500 ml Erlen-meyer flasks with a 250 ml working volume(SG) Light intensity: 1650.3 μmol m^-2s^-1 (sunlight) (RG) Photoperiod: 12 L:12D Temperature [°C]: 21–24 (RG) 28 (SG) Growth medium: Bold Basal Medium (BBM) N source: ND	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[37]
		Initial characteristic		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 11.24% SOx: 781.8 mgNm^-3 NOx: 423.9 mgNm^-3	CO2: 10% SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.06	∼0.02
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		foam inlet filter	ND	ND	ND
		Delivery		Carbon fixation:
		air enriched with the flue gas − 1.1, 3.3, 5.5% CO2 (RG)	air enriched with CO2 (SG)	ND	ND
Mixed microalgae consortia – fresh and stormwater algae Unfiltered coal-fired flue gas	System: bubble column PBR (Conical polyethene bags) with 25 L microalgal culture, 5 L for gas space, the addition of phosphate buffer Light intensity: 1650.3 μmol m^-2s^-1 (sunlight) Photoperiod: 12 L:12D Temperature [°C]: ND Growth medium: Bold Basal Medium (BBM)	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[38]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 11.24% SOx: 781.8 mgNm^-3 NOx: 423.9 mgNm^-3	CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.05975
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	Total FAME: 70.2–280.3 µgmg^-1, Lipid production: 3.435559–14.02823 µg·L^−1·d^−1	ND
		Delivery		Carbon fixation
		air enriched with the real flue gas (1.0%, 3.0% and 5.5% CO2)	ND	ND	ND
Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 Industrial flue gas from a combined heat and power plant	System: outdoor cultivation in a closed 100 L scalable serial column-shaped PBR using flue gas Light intensity: 100 µmol m^-2s^-1 (natural light – August and October) Photoperiod: ND Temperature [°C]: ND Growth medium: BG11 medium (industrial tap water instead of distilled water and MOPS)	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[39]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 3 − 6% (v/v) SOx: ND NOx: 21.72 ± 3.72 ppm	CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	ND	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		desulfurization and filtration	ND	ND	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		air with CO2 (5.5% v/v) in 10 mM potassium hydroxide solution	ND	ND	ND
Scenedesmus obliquus Flue gas from demonstration-scale coal-burning power plant	System: 500 ml aluminum crimp-sealed serum bottles − 300 ml medium Light intensity: 120 µmol m^-2s^-1 (white fluorescent light) Photoperiod: 24 L:0D Temperature [°C]: 27 Growth medium: BBM	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[40]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 14.1% SOx: ND NOx: ND	CO2: 0% SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.045	0.010
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	Lipid contents: 19.8–22.8% Max lipid productivity: 9.9 mg L^-1day^-1 Total carbohydrates contents: 22.3–23.9%; 42% of palmitic and oleic acid	Max lipid productivity: ∼2.8 mg L^-1day^-1
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		bottles supplemented with 5%, 10% and 14.1% flue gas CO2	cultivation without CO2	Total inorganic carbon removal 35.8 mgL^-1	ND
Chlorella vulgaris UAM 9-88 Flue Gas – simulate (SG) and exhausted stream of a power plant (RG)	System: 2 L jacketed bubble column PBR Light intensity: 3000 μmolPAR m^-2s^-1 Photoperiod: 12 L:12D Temperature [°C]: 20 Growth medium: Arnon medium N source: NaNO3	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[41]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 12% (v/v) SOx: 0.06% (v/v) SO2 NOx: 0.08% (v/v) NO2	CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.5	0.5
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	proteins ≥40% lipids ≥25% carbohydrates ∼20%	proteins ≥40% lipids ≥25% carbohydrates ∼20%
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		flue gas supplied into airstream (RG)	air enriched with CO2 (SG)	0.9 g·L^−1·d^−1	1.0 g·L^−1·d^−1
Chlorella vulgaris CCMA-UFSCar 012 Real cement flue gas from a cement plant clinker kiln chimney	System: Flasks (500 ml; working volume 400 ml, liquid column of 15 cm) bubbled with cement flue gas Light intensity: 130 µmol m^-2s^-1 Photoperiod: 12 L:12D Temperature [°C]: 23 ± 1 Growth medium: Modified BG11 without N source	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[42]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 8.38 ± 0.44% SOx: 504.84 ± 33.44 mgNm^-3 NOx: 484.46 ± 14.99 mgNm^-3	CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND air	ND	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		Pressurizing to deliver to the growth system	ND	The algal biomass has the accumulation of Cr, Zn, and Ni.	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		daily gas input volume: 9, 36, and 54 L d^−1	54 L d^−1	ND	ND
Chlorella vulgaris 395 UTEX® Flue gas from power plant	System: two 118 L pilot algae PBR (working volume of 100 L), semi-continuous cultivation (harvest ratio 20 and 30%) Light intensity: 31, 104, 177, 531 μmol m^-2s^-1 PPFD Photoperiod: 24 L:0D Temperature [°C]: 20 Growth medium: Tris-Acetate-Phosphate (TAP) agar medium N source: TAP medium – NH4Cl	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[43]
		Initial characteristic		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 7.6 ± 0.8% (v/v) SOx: ND NOx: ND	CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.410 ± 0.040	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		through 0.22 μm filter	ND	protein content: 51% and a variety of minerals	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		flue gas was directly pumped to the PBR	ND	0.8 kg CO2day^-1	ND
Chlorella sp. MTF-15 Flue gas from coke oven (CO), hot stove (HS), power plant (PP) Simulated gas (SG)	System: indoor column-type glass-fabricated PBSs and 24 outdoor 50 L PBRs Light intensity: 300 μmolm^-2s^-1 Photoperiod: 24 L:0D Temperature [°C]: 26 ± 1 Growth medium: ND	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[44]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 23–27% (CO) 24–28% (HS) 22–26% (PP) SOx: 80–90 ppm (CO) 15–20 ppm (HS) 15–20 ppm (PP) NOx: 70–80 ppm (CO) 8–10 ppm (HS) 25–30 ppm (PP)	CO2`: 25% SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.528 ± 0.022	0.255
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	Lipid content: 21.5–41.6 % Lipid production: 0.509–0.961 g L^-1	Lipid content: 35.7% Lipid production: 0.521 g L^-1
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		flue gas mixed with air	air enriched with CO2 (SG)	ND	ND
Chlorella strains: LAMB 31 Exhaust gas from the power plant – real gas (RG) Synthetic gas – pure CO2 (SG)	System: columnar photobioreactor, 800 ml volume Light intensity: 100 μmol photons m^-2s^-1 (SG and RG) Photoperiod: 12 L:12D (SG and RG) Temperature [°C]: 26 ± 0 (SG and RG) Growth medium: BG11 medium (SG and RG)	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[45]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 13% v/v SOx: 30 ppm NOx: 129 ppm (89.1% NO)	CO2`: 40% SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.36	0.89 ± 0.10
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	ND	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		flue gas was directly pumped to the photobioreactor with different flow rates	mix air and pure CO2 (concentration 40%)	0.11–0.14 g·L^−1·d^−1	ND
S. dimorphus Simulated flue gas	System: 3-L airlift photobioreactor Light intensity: 100μmolm^-2s^-1 Photoperiod: 24 L:0D Temperature [°C]: 25 ± 0 Growth medium: BG11 medium	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[46]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2:10% SOx: 100 ppm NOx: 250 ppm	CO2`:ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	∼0.31	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	total carbohydrates: 12.2–15.7% total lipids: 21.0–22.0% protein levels: 44.9–46.2%	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		flue gases were supplemented by pH feedback	ND	ND	ND
Different microalgae strains: cyanobacteria (Anabaena sp., Aphanizomenon sp., Nodularia spumigena) dinoflagellate (Dinophysis sp.) chain-forming diatoms (Skeletonema marinoi) Cement flue gas (FG) Industrial grade CO2-air mixture (SG)	System: tubular polystyrene photobioreactors – PBR2 4.5 L, semi-continuous cultivation (SG and FG) Light intensity: 300–500 μmolm^-2s^-1 (SG and FG) Photoperiod: 16 L:8D (SG and FG) Temperature [°C]: ND Growth medium: Baltic seawater (SG and FG)	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[47]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 13.5% (SG) SOx: ND NOx: ND	CO2`: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.026 ± 11 (FG)* 0.032 ± 13 (SG)*	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	total lipid: 14–26% DW total protein: 15–28% DW total carbohydrates: 9–23% DW	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		air with industrial CO2 or flue gas	ND	ND	ND
Chlorella sorokiniana UTEX 2714 Flue gas from a coal-fired power plant	System: outdoor cultivation − 10-L thin-film photobioreactor (PBR) Light intensity: Natural sunlight Photoperiod: ND Temperature [°C]: ND Growth medium: 0.4 g L^−1 NH4Cl, 0.05 g L^−1 CaCl2, 0.1 g L^−1 MgSO4, 0.108 g L^−1 of K2HPO4, 0.056 g L^−1 of KH2PO4, and 1 ml of Hutner’s trace elements solution with 10 mM KOH N source: 0.4 g L^−1 NH4Cl 1–10 mM of urea	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[48]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 13–15% SOx: ND NOx: ND	CO2`: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.161	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	Lipid content: 3–33,3%	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		Flue gas or air was directly pumped into a photobioreactor	ND	ND	ND
Arthrospira sp. Simulated flue gas	System: column photo-bioreactors 300 ml Light intensity: 17,670 lux light Photoperiod: ND Temperature [°C]: 25.7 °C Growth medium: Zarrouk medium, F/2 medium, SE medium, deionized water, and tap water N source: NaNO^3: − 2.5 gL^-1 Zarrouk medium, 0.225 gL^-1 F/2 medium, 1.0 gL^-1 SE medium,	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[49]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 15% SOx:0, 50, 200 mg m^3 (SO2) NOx: ND	CO2`: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.504 g L^-1*	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	ND	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		Simulated flue gas with SO2 was directly supplied to a photobioreactor	ND	ND	ND
Desmodesmus sp. Simulating cement flue gas	System: Two sets of photobioreactors consisting of BBM and 3 N-BBM Light intensity: 10,000 lux Photoperiod: 12 L:12D Temperature [°C]: ND Growth medium: Bold’s Basal media N source: Bold’s Basal media containing three times the nitrate concentration or standard nitrate concentration	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[50]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 15.50% SOx: ND NOx:73% v/v	CO2`: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.138 ± 0.01*	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	Max carbohydrates content: 32.44 ± 0.45% (w/w)	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		Simulated undiluted and diluted flue gas was supplied	ND	0.17–0.26 g·L^−1·d^−1	ND
Tetraselmis KAC21 S. marinoi SMTV1 Natural microalgal community Cement flue gas (RG) Industrial CO2 (simulated gas)	System: 3 × 2 × 2 replicate cylinders in a photobioreactor (PBR) Light intensity: 300–500μmolm^-2s^-1 Photoperiod: 16 L:8D Temperature [°C]: 15.0 ± 0 °C Growth medium: f/2 Baltic seawater medium	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[51]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 12–15% SOx: <50 mgNm^-3 (SO2) NOx: <800 mgNm^-3	CO2`: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.00633*	0.00647
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	lipids ∼18–25%DW proteins ∼23–25% DW carbohydrates ∼20–32% DW	lipids ∼25–27%DW proteins ∼22–25% DW carbohydrates ∼85–28% DW
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		air enriched with the flue gas (FG)	air – CO2 mixture (SG)	ND	ND
Haematococcus pluvialis NIES-144 Flue gas from a liquefied natural gas from a combined heat and power plant	System: outdoor culture system– vertical bubble column, tubular Light intensity: 250 μEm^-2s^-1 Photoperiod: ND Temperature [°C]: 22 ± 4 °C Growth medium: NIES-C medium	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[52]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 3–6% SOx: ND NOx: 21.72 ± 3.72 ppm	CO2`:ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.21	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	ND	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		Flue gas was directly pumped to photobioreactors	ND	ND	ND
Chlorella vulgaris flue gases from the CHP-plant	System: Outdoors – pilot-scale PBRs Light intensity: 202.18–1865.20 μmolm^-2s^-1 (different months) Photoperiod: ND Temperature [°C]: 12.12–21.18 (different months) Growth medium: municipal untreated wastewater N source: 46.26 ± 5.11 mg L^-1 N–NH4^+ 0.04 to 0.99 mg L^-1 N–NO3^-	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[53]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 7.4 ± 1.9% SOx:4.4 ± 4.7mgNm^-3 (SO2) NOx:38 ± 24 mgNm^-3	CO2`: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	average 0.349 ± 0.111 gL^-1	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	Carbohydrate content: 15.11–41.60% DW Lipid content: 16.11–18.16% DW Protein content: 17% DW	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		Flue gas was directly pumped to photobioreactors	ND	ND	ND
C. reinhardtii CC-125 PMA4ΔCter-V4 Flue gas stream emitted from the coal-fired power plant.	System: Greenhouse-based air-lift type polymer film photobioreactor Light intensity: ND Photoperiod: ND Temperature [°C]: ND Growth medium: 10 mM KOH sparged with flue gas to pH 7.11 and supplemented with the following salts: 0.83 mM MgSO4·7H2O, 0.45 mM CaCl2·2H2O, 1.65 mM K2HPO4, 1.05 mM KH2PO4, 0.134 mM Na2EDTA·2H2O, 0.136 mM ZnSO4·7H2O, 0.184 mM H3BO3, 40 μM MnCl2·4H2O, 32.9 μM FeSO4·7H2O, 12.3 μM CoCl2·6H2O, 10 μM CuSO4·5H2O, and 4.44 μM (NH4)6MoO3 N source: 7 mM NH4Cl N–NH4^+	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[54]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 13.18% SOx: 32.04 ppm NOx: 20.27 ppm	CO2`: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.0933 ± 0.0023 g·L^−1·d^−1	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	Lipid productivity: 0.0189 ± 0.0035 g·L^−1·d^−1 Lipid content: 20.18 ± 3.30 wt % LHV: 17.4 kJ g^−1	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		flue gas continuously sparged into the water phase at an aeration rate of 0.1 vvm	ND	0.1622 ± 0.0395 g·L^−1·d^−1	ND
Open pond systems
Chlorella vulgaris Flue gas from coal combustion	System: Raceway pond in batch and semi-continuous mode Light intensity: sunlight (outdoor summer) Photoperiod: Natural with 3 hr of direct sunlight Temperature [°C]: 31.5 ± 0.5 Growth medium: Tap water with major nutrients	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[55]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 10 ± 2% (v/v) SOx: ND NOx: ND	CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.016 ± 0.004	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	ND	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		Flue gas flow rate 0.0125 vvm for 90–120 min d^-1.	Not aerated with flue gas.	∼103 semi-continuous ∼9 batch	∼14 semi-continuous ∼34 batch
Scenedesmus sp. Flue gases obtained from a diesel heating boiler	System: A semi-continuous mode in pilot-scale outdoor raceways (7.2 m^-2), 0.05, 0.10 and 0.15 m culture depths (culture volumes of 360, 720 and 1080 L), 30% and 45% centrate concentrations Light intensity: 470 µEm^-2s^-1 (PAR) Photoperiod: ND Temperature [°C]: 13.6–26.0 Growth medium: centrate from an urban wastewater treatment plant with tap water N source: centrate from a real urban wastewater treatment plant: N-NH4^+; N-NO3^-	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[56]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: average 10% SOx: ND NOx: ND	CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.153	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		cooling – passive stainless-steel serpentine	ND	Fatty acids: 2.3–4.5 % d.wt. Max lipid contents: 10.1% Max lipid productivity: 2.3 g m^-1day^-1	cooling – passive stainless-steel serpentine
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		air enriched with the flue gas	ND	ND	ND
Nannochloropsis oculata Flue gas from a coal-fired power plant	System: raceway pond culture system containing five flue gas aeration zones, Light intensity: 75,400 lux (sunlight) Photoperiod: 11 L:13D Temperature [°C]: 26.5 ± 2.0 Growth medium: Sea water	Flue gas	Control	Flue gas	Control	[57]
		Initial characteristic:		Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
		CO2: 12 ± 2% SOx: 50 ± 10 ppm (SO2) NOx: 120 ± 10 ppm	CO2: ND SOx: ND NOx: ND	0.066	ND
		Pretreatment:		Biomass characteristics:
		ND	ND	ND	ND
		Delivery:		Carbon fixation:
		flue gas was introduced into the raceway pound – to five aeration zones	ND	34.6 g·m^−3·d^−1	ND

ND – no data; *– productivity estimated from other data

Table 2. Application of bicarbonate for the cultivation of microalgae and cyanobacteria.

Algal strain	Cultivation	Inorganic carbon source		Biomass		References
Thermosynecococcus sp. TCL-1	System: Tubular bioreactor (1 L working volume) Light intensity: 15000 Lux Photoperiod: Continuous illumination Temperature [°C]: 50 °C Growth medium: The modified Fitzgerald medium Flow ratio: 1 ml l^-1 (constant flow rate) Carbon source: Sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate N source: ND Elemental analysis of TCL-1 (C) 39,8–44,8%, (N) 7.2–8.4%, (H) 6.6–7.2%, (S) 0.5–0.6% Cultivation variants: Different DIC [mM], DIP [mM], medium [1- or 2-Fold]	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	[62]
		[DIC, DIP, medium fold] 1. [28, 0.2, 1-fold] 2. [57, 0.2, 1-fold] 3. [85, 0.2, 1-fold] 4. [85, 0.4, 1-fold] 5. [85, 0.4, 2-fold] 6. [113, 0.2, 1-fold] 7. [113, 0.4, 1-fold] 8. [113, 0.4, 2-fold] [mM, mM, fold]	ND	Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
				1. 0.486; 2. 0.620 3. 0.948; 4. 0.958 5. 0.128; 6. 0.106 7. 0.917; 8. 0.173	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				ND
				Carbon fixation:
				1. 26%; 2. 43% 3. 41%; 4. 32% 5. 25%; 6. 37% 7. 38%; 8. 25%	ND
Dunaliella salina CCAP 19/18	System: 1000 ml Erlenmeyer flasks (300 ml working volume) Light intensity: 115.4 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 Photoperiod: Continuous illumination Temperature [°C]: 25 °C Growth medium: Modified artificial seawater medium according to ATCC 1174DA medium Flow ratio: 50 rpm shaking Carbon source: Sodium bicarbonate N source: ND Cultivation variants: Different bicarbonate concentrations	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	[63]
		[mmol L^−1] NaHCO3 1. 10; 2. 30 3. 50; 4. 100 5. 200; 6. 300	ND	Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
				1. 0.071; 2. 0.073 3. 0.083; 4. 0.109 5. 0.105; 6. 0.099	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				Carotene content (%): 1. 1.95; 2. 2.09; 3. 2.19; 4. 1.73; 5. 1.90; 6. 1.98
				Carbon fixation:
				ND	ND
Chlorella sp. (marine species)	System: PBR (first indoors then outdoors) Light intensity: 100 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 Photoperiod: Not mentioned Temperature [°C]: 25 ± 1 °C Growth medium: Modified F/2 medium Flow ratio: Not mentioned Carbon source: Sodium bicarbonate N source: ND Cultivation variants: Different NaHCO3 concentrations	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	[64]
		[mmol L^−1] NaHCO3 1. 0.00; 2. 11.90 3. 35.71; 4. 59.52 5. 83.33	ND	Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
				1. 0.100; 2. 0.160 3. 0.240; 4. 0.250 5. 0.260	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				Protein content (%): 1. 39.4 ± 0.1; 2. 33.8 ± 0.7; 3. 32.3 ± 0.3; 4. 29.0 ± 0.1; 5. 27.7 ± 1 Carbohydrate content (%): 1. 33.5 ± 0.6; 2. 35.2 ± 0.5; 3. 39.3 ± 0.9; 4. 42.0 ± 0.8; 5. 40.0 ± 0.6 Lipid content(%): 1. 11.4 ± 0.1; 2. 17.7 ± 0.7; 3. 16.7 ± 0.3; 4. 14.6 ± 0.4; 5. 21.1 ± 0.1
				Carbon fixation:
				ND	ND
Arthrospira sp. DUT001 (Spirulina)	System: Glass bubble-column PBRs (5 L working volume) Light intensity: 188.7 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 Photoperiod: 12h:12h (light:dark) Temperature [°C]: 25 °C Growth medium: Modified Zarrouk medium Flow ratio: Not mentioned Carbon source: Bicarbonate and air (with 0% CO2) N source: ND Cultivation variants: Total bicarbonate/carbonate concentrations	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	[65]
		[mmol L^-1] NaHCO3 1. 100; 2. 300; 3. 500	ND	Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
				Average diurnal volume productivities 1. 0.276; 2. 0.575; 3. 0.510	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				ND
				Carbon fixation:
				ND	ND
Chlorella sp. HS2	System: 500 ml baffled culture flask (250 ml working volume) Light intensity: 130 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 Photoperiod: Continuous illumination Temperature [°C]: 25 ± 2 °C Growth medium: BG11 medium Flow ratio: Bubbling: 0.25 vvm and shaking: 110 rpm Carbon source: Bicarbonateand CO2 N source: ND Cultivation variants: Different NaHCO3 concentrations	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	[66]
		[mmol L^−1] NaHCO3 1. 0.00; 2. 11.90 3. 29.76; 4. 59.52 5. 89.28; 6. 119.04 7. 0.00; 8. 11.90 9. 29.76; 10. 59.52 11. 89.28; 12. 119.04	CO2 1. 0%; 2. 0% 3. 0%; 4. 0% 5. 0%; 6. 0% 7. 1%; 8. 1% 9. 1%; 10. 1% 11. 1%; 12. 1%	Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
				1. 0.067; 2. 0.072 3. 0.086; 4. 0.099 5. 0.112; 6. 0.108 7. 0.364; 8. 0.461 9. 0.501; 10.0.530 11. 0.517; 12. 0.495	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				FAME content (%): 1. 9.86 ± 0.36; 2. 16.70 ± 0.62; 3. 17.87 ± 0.68; 4. 19.99 ± 0.69; 5. 21.03 ± 0.76; 6. 19.36 ± 0.71; 7. 21.66 ± 0.60; 8. 26.06 ± 0.80; 9. 26.42 ± 0.9; 10. 26.76 ± 0.7; 11. 24.15 ± 0.8; 12. 22.31 ± 0.9
				Carbon fixation:
				1. 0.126; 2. 0.136 3. 0.161; 4. 0.186 5. 0.210; 6. 0.203 7. 0.684; 8. 0.867 9. 0.942; 10. 0.996 11. 0.972; 12. 0.931	ND
Thermosynechococcus elongatus PKUAC-SCTE542	System: Flasks (350 ml) Light intensity: 70 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 Photoperiod: Constant illumination Temperature [°C]: 45 °C Growth medium: BG11 medium Flow ratio: Not mentioned Carbon source: Bicarbonate N source: ND Cultivation variants: Different NaHCO3 concentrations	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	[67]
		[mmol L^−1] NaHCO3 1. 100; 2. 300 3. 500; 4. 1000	ND	Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
				1. 0.051; 2. 0.061 3. 0.040; 4. 0.000	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				ND
				Carbon fixation:
				ND	ND
Arthrospira platensis FACHB-3142 (Spirulina)	System: 1000 ml Erlenmeyer flasks (400 ml working medium) Light intensity: 141.5 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 Photoperiod: Constant illumination Temperature [°C]: 25 ± 1 °C Growth medium: Zarrouk medium Flow ratio: 140 rpm shaking Carbon source: Sodium bicarbonate N source: ND Cultivation variants: Different NaHCO3 concentrations	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	[68]
		[mmol L^−1] NaHCO3 1. 100; 2. 300 3. 500; 4. 700	ND	Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
				1. 0.230; 2. 0.270 3. 0.230; 4. 0.160	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				ND
				Carbon fixation:
				1. 28.0 ± 1.4% 2. 31.6 ± 1.3% 3. 43.9 ± 2.1% 4. 104 ± 2.6%	ND
Cyanobacterium sp. SCSIO-45682	System: 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask (150 ml working volume) Light intensity: 60 ± 5 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 Photoperiod: 24 h:0 h (light: dark) Temperature [°C]: 25 ± 1 °C Growth medium: f/2 medium Flow ratio: Not mentioned Carbon source: Sodium bicarbonate N source: ND Cultivation variants: Different NaHCO3 concentrations	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2 or air)	[69]
		[g/L] NaHCO3 1. 0.0; 2. 1.0 3. 2.1; 4. 4.2 5. 8.4; 6. 16.8	ND	Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
				1. 0.015; 2. 0.058; 3. 0.079; 4. 0.102 5. 0.175; 6. 0.122	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				Chl a productivity (mgL^-1d^-1): 1. 0.17 ± 0.01; 2. 0.89 ± 0.02; 3. 0.90 ± 0.08; 4. 0.91 ± 0.57; 5. 1.51 ± 0.02; 6. 1.04 ± 0.12 Carotenoids productivity (mgL^-1d^-1): 1. 0.11 ± 0.01, 2. 0.53 ± 0.03, 3. 0.50 ± 0.05, 4. 0.55 ± 0.33, 5. 0.63 ± 0.01, 6. 0.45 ± 0.05 Phycocyanin productivity (mgL^-1d^-1): 1. 0.51 ± 0.02; 2. 5.06 ± 0.03; 3. 3.16 ± 0.01; 4. 3.22 ± 0.34; 5. 3.74 ± 0.02; 6. 5.95 ± 0.02
				Carbon fixation:
				ND	ND
Leptolyngbya sp. DUT001	System: A bubbling column PBRs (600 ml) Light intensity: 150 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 Photoperiod: Constant illumination Temperature [°C]: 25 ± 1 °C Growth medium: Zarrouk medium Flow ratio: The air rate of 200 ml min^−1 Carbon source: Sodium bicarbonate N source: ND Cultivation variants: Different NaHCO3 concentrations	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	[70]
		[mmol L^−1] NaHCO3 1. 100 (8.4 g/L) 2. 300 (25.2 g/L) 3. 500 (42.0 g/L) 4. 700 (58.8 g/L)	ND	Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
				1. 0.245; 2. 0.605 3. 0.567; 4. 0.518	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				ND
				Carbon fixation:
				ND	ND
Synechococcus PCC 7002	System: Glass vertical tubes (250 ml) Light intensity: 1180 lumen Photoperiod: Continuous light on one side Temperature [°C]: 28 °C Growth medium: Basal A medium Flow ratio: Not mentioned Carbon source: Sodium bicarbonate N source: ND Cultivation variants: Different NaHCO3 concentrations	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	[71]
		[mmol L^−1] NaHCO3 1. 65.48 (5.5 g/L) 2. 130.95 (11 g/L) 3. 261.90 (22 g/L) 4. 523.81 (44 g/L) 5. 1047.62 (88 g/L)	ND	Max productivity [g·L^−1·d^−1]:
				1. 0.438; 2. 0.483 3. 1.123; 4. 0.906 5. 0.616;	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				ND
				Carbon fixation:
				ND	ND
Euhalothece ZM001	System: Erlenmeyer flasks (working volume 100 ml) Light intensity: 100 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 Photoperiod: Continuous illumination Temperature [°C]: 25 °C Growth medium: standard M medium Flow ratio: Not mentioned Carbon source: Sodium bicarbonate N source: ND Cultivation variants: Different NaHCO3 concentrations	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	Dissolved Inorganic Carbon	Control Other inorganic carbon (e.g., CO2or air)	[72]
		NaHCO3 (NaCl [mM], pH) 1. 160 (1000, 10) 2. 500 (1500, 10.5) 3. 1000 (1000, 10) 4. 1500 (1500, 10.5) 5. 1840 (1000, 10)	ND	Max productivity [g·L^−1]:
				DCW 1. 0.196; 2. 0.176 3. 0.396; 4. 0.124 5. 0.248;	ND
				Biomass characteristics:
				ND
				Carbon fixation:
				ND	ND

ND – no data

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