Improving assessment center criterion validity for salesperson selection: a socioanalytic approach

Figures & data

Figure 1. Bifactor model with assessment dimensions and exercise factors (see Table 2, Model C).

Notes: ASA = Active social approach competence, MOS = Motivation for success, SCM = Sales conversation management, IF = Implementation focus, WL = Willingness to learn, TW = Teamwork Competence.

Table 1. Definitions of evaluated AC dimensions.

Active social approach competence	means actively seeking out contact with other people. It is the ability to approach others with openness and without timidity, to quickly build and maintain a network – including with people from other social or professional contexts. People with strong interpersonal skills appear pleasant and congenial and make a good impression on others.
Sales conversation management	refers to the ability to express oneself well and convince others with arguments and with one’s personal demeanor. It is the ability to structure conversations, articulate oneself clearly and understandably, and to appropriately emphasize what one has said through body language and facial expressions. People with a good ability to make conversation make cogent arguments and give their conversation partner sufficient opportunity to contribute to the conversation.
Motivation for success	means continuously striving over the long term to achieve the goals that have been set. It is the ability to “keep at it” even when one encounters resistance/frustration or failure and to work to achieve a successful result. Motivated people exhibit perseverance, work diligently, and have a strong desire for success.
Implementation focus	refers to a person’s action orientation. It is the ability to concentrate on what is important when putting goals into action and to remain solution-oriented in one’s thinking and actions (rather than problem-oriented). People with execution competence are pro-active, effectively deploy their resources, and are more likely to see opportunities than risks.
Willingness to learn	refers to expanding one’s own knowledge and skills. It is characterized by the ability to realistically assess one’s own capabilities and willingness to accept feedback. People with the willingness and ability to learn are aware of their own strengths and weaknesses and can deal with them in a constructive way.
Teamwork competence	means being able to integrate oneself into a group and work purposefully with a group to complete a task. It is the ability to find a place for oneself within the group that is accepted by the other group members and contributes to completing the task at hand. People with a good ability to work in teams can optimally integrate into and actively participate in different groups.

Table 2. Model-data fit indices for confirmatory factor analysis models.

Model	${\mathrm{\chi }}^2$	df	p (${\mathrm{\chi }}^2,\mathrm{ }df)$	RMSEA	p (RMSEA)	CFI	TLI	SRMR
A: 9 correlated factors: 6 dimensions, 3 exercises	277.68	67	.0000	.114	.000	.947	.905	.508
B: bifactor model: first order general factor, 3 exercises	166.03	82	.0000	.065	.041	.976	.969	.021
C: bifactor model: 6 dimensions, 3 exercises	111.35	75	.0041	.045	.674	.991	.985	.025
D: bifactor model: second order general factor, 6 dimensions, 3 exercises	127.76	84	.0012	.047	.604	.989	.984	.023
Model comparison C vs. D	Δ = 17.4	Δ = 9	p < .05

Notes: N = 241; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CFI = comparative fit index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis index; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual.

Table 3. Means, SDs, Reliabilities, and Correlations of Study Variables.

		Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
1	Motivation for success	3.66	0.42	(.83)
2	Active social approach competence	3.78	0.42	.75***	(.86)
3	Teamwork competence	3.55	0.46	.49***	.62***	(.89)
4	Sales conversation management	3.58	0.43	.81***	.83***	.61***	(.84)
5	Implementation focus	3.56	0.46	.80***	.78***	.58***	.84***	(.85)
6	Willingness to learn	3.67	0.38	.75***	.74***	.56***	.83***	.76***	(.84)
7	AC: total score	3.63	0.38	.88***	.90***	.75***	.94***	.91***	.88***	(.84)
8	Social competence	3.64	0.39	.77***	.91***	.85***	.91***	.82***	.80***	.97***	(.85)
9	Exercise: Acquisition	3.67	0.39	.71***	.75***	.43***	.71***	.52***	.65***	.71***	.70***	(.86)
10	Exercise: Sales	3.62	0.51	.82***	.75***	.52***	.83***	.86***	.81***	.87***	.78***	.48***	(.84)
11	Exercise: Interview	3.68	0.44	.76***	.81***	.63***	.85***	.85***	.79***	.89***	.85***	.56***	.67***	(.88)
12	Average sales revenue	28885.86	22307.87	.26*	.30**	.25*	.24*	.13	.17	.26**	.29**	.16	.20	.26*

Notes: N = 93; 0 = female, 1 = male; average sales performance after 1 year; interrater agreement (r_wg) on the diagonal.

* p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Figure 2. Interaction Effect of Motivation and Social Competence on Average Sales Revenue (Model 2).

Notes: N = 93; **p < .001.

Table 4. Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Average Sales Revenue.

	DV: Average sales revenue
	Without quadratic terms				With quadratic terms
	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3a		Model 3b
	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β
Motivation for success	2080.71 (3485.60)	.09	1520.81 (3200.17)	.07	1523.95 (3212.36)	.07	1123.33 (3248.47)	.05
Social competence	4964.21 (3485.60)	.22	2810.40 3237.60)	.13	2600.96 (3270.55)	.12	3031.32 (3257.54)	.14
Social competence (squared)					1894.95 (3318.23)	.11
Motivation for success (squared)							−2928.97 (3792.14)	-.16
Motivation for success x Social competence			7542.02 (1780.02)	.41***	5862.98 (3440.53)	.32^†	10290.22 (3980.31)	.56*
$R_{\mathit{corr}}^2$	.07*		.217***		.211***		.214***
$F_{R^2}$	4.45		9.51		7.16		7.25
(df1, df2)	(2, 90)		(3, 89)		(4, 88)		(4, 88)
${\Delta R}^2$			.153***		.156***		.158***
$F_{{\Delta R}^2}$			17.95		9.07		9.23
(df1, df2)			(1, 89)		(2, 88)		(2, 88)

Notes: N = 93.

† p < .05 (one-tailed); *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Table 5. Hierarchical regression analyses predicting average sales revenue controlling for the AC exercises.

	DV: Average sales revenue
	Without quadratic terms				With quadratic terms
	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3a		Model 3b
	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β
AC Exercise: Acquisition	95.162 (2794.75)	.00	−1427.51 (2571.31)	-.06	−1567.29 (2591.54)	-.07	−1316.75 (2583.25)	-.06
AC Exercise: Sales	271.747 (3163.69)	.01	351.03 (2883.72)	.02	513.59 (2907.31)	.02	408.44 (2893.00)	.02
AC Exercise: Interview	3782.501 (3591.38)	.17	3208.61 (3276.15)	.14	3020.66 (3303.47)	.14	2781.31 (3339.53)	.13
AC Exercise: Teamwork	2968.593 (2987.45)	.13	1780.10 (2736.68)	.08	1674.35 (2752.62)	.08	1964.78 (2756.60)	.09
Social competence (squared)					2014.61 (3382.18)	.12
Motivation for success (squared)							−2746.95 (3848.62)	-.15
Motivation for success x Social competence			7814.14 (1796.41)	.42***	6037.28 (3485.65)	.33^†	10378.64 (4019.334)	.56*
$R_{\mathit{corr}}^2$	.039		.202***		.196***		.197***
$F_{R^2}$	1.93		5.65		4.73		4.76
(df1, df2)	(4, 88)		(5, 87)		(6, 86)		(6, 86)
${\Delta R}^2$			.164***		.167***		.169***
$F_{{\Delta R}^2}$			18.92		9.57		9.66
(df1, df2)			(1, 87)		(2, 86)		(2, 86)

Notes: N = 93.

† p < .05 (one-tailed); *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Table 6. Hierarchical regression analyses predicting average sales revenue controlling for AC total score.

	DV: Average sales revenue
	Without quadratic terms				With quadratic terms
	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3a		Model 3b
	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β
AC total score	5718.76 (2260.35)	.26*	3331.29 (2129.28)	.15	3116.99 (2163.39)	.14	3213.91 (2137.92)	.14
Social competence (squared)					2087.88 (3315.36)	.12
Motivation for success (squared)							−3080.78 (3750.46)	-.17
Motivation for success x Social competence			7809.32 (1764.71)	.42***	5950.75 (3441.66)	.32^†	10695.16 (3932.90)	.58**
$R_{\mathit{corr}}^2$	.055*		.216***		.210***		.213***
$F_{R^2}$	6.40		13.65		9.17		9.29
(df1, df2)	(1, 91)		(2, 90)		(3, 89)		(3, 89)
${\Delta R}^2$			.167***		.170***		.173***
$F_{{\Delta R}^2}$			19.58		9.92		10.09
(df1, df2)			(1, 90)		(2, 89)		(2, 89)

Notes: N = 93.

† p < .05 (one-tailed); *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Table

	Negative behaviors	Positive behaviors
Active social approach competence	Comes across as distant and withdrawn	Approaches strangers with openness
	Shys away from personal contact	Seeks out personal contact
	Does not create a positive atmosphere	Creates a positive atmosphere in conversation
	Comes across as unlikable	Is well-liked
	Does not find a friendly way to start the conversation	Finds a friendly way to start the conversation
	Does not build a relationship with their conversation partner	Builds a positive relationship with their conversation partner
	Comes across as bland when first getting to know them	Comes across as lively and appealing when first getting to know them
	Maintains a closed posture	Maintains an open posture
Sales conversation management	Conveys content in a long-winded, unclear way	Conveys content in a simple, easy-to-understand way
	Digresses, does not get to the point	Expresses themself clearly and comprehensibly
	Does not steer the conversation	Steers the conversation
	Does not find any convincing arguments	Finds convincing arguments
	Asks few questions and hardly listens	Asks questions and actively listens
	Does not address their conversation partner’s needs	Addresses their conversation partner’s needs
	Interrupts their conversation partner	Lets their conversation partner finish speaking
	Barely lets their conversation partner speak	Gives their conversation partner enough opportunity to speak
	Cannot win over/enthuse others for themself and their priorities	Can win over/enthuse others for themself and their priorities
	Acts non-committally	Creates commitment
	Does not end the conversation with a commitment or does not close the sale	Ends the conversation with a commitment or closes the sale
	Comes across as inauthentic, non-credible and untrustworthy	Comes across as authentic, credible and trustworthy
	Employs facial expressions and gestures inappropriately or insufficiently	Employs facial expressions and gestures effectively
	Uses many words with negative connotations	Speaks in positive images, uses positively connotated words
Motivation for success	Does not exhibit a focus on success	Exhibits a focus on success
	Requires external motivation	Is self-motivated
	Exhibits little desire to make sales	Exhibits a desire to make sales
	Allows failures to sap their motivation	Does not let failures set them back
	Does not show persistence and gives up easily	Shows persistence, keeps at it and does not let up
	Lets themself get easily rattled and does not show resilience	Does not let themself get rattled and shows resilience
	Does not work diligently	Works diligently
Implementation focus	Behavior is passive and reactive	Takes initiative and engages in pro-active behavior
	Comes across as non-dynamic	Comes across as dynamic
	Problem-oriented	Solution-oriented
	Sees risks instead of opportunities	Sees opportunities instead of risks
	Does not show business acumen	Shows business acumen
	Gets bogged down	Sets the right priorities
	Has few ideas	Has ideas
Willingness to learn	Inaccurately reflects on their own behavior	Accurately reflects on their own behavior
	Does not sufficiently acknowledge their own strengths and weaknesses	Recognizes their own strengths and weaknesses
	Not aware of their own impact	Aware of their own impact
	Demonstrates a lack of openness to novelty	Demonstrates an openness to novelty
	Rarely accepts feedback, justifies themself	Accepts feedback
	Does not implement feedback	Implements feedback
	Little interest in their own further development	Interested in their own further development
	Blames failure on external circumstances	Takes responsibility for their own actions
Teamwork competence	Does not find an appropriate role within the team and holds the group back	Finds an appropriate role within the team and advances the group’s work
	Does not act cooperatively	Acts cooperatively
	Opinions they express are not accepted by the team	Expresses opinions that are taken up by others
	Demonstrates a lack of willingness to help others	Demonstrates willingness to help others
	Insists unyieldingly on their own opinions and unwilling to make comprises or reach a consensus	Willing to make compromises and reach a consensus

Data availability statement

The authors are not the proprietors of the data. Therefore, the data are not publicly available due to legal restrictions. However, the data/codes of this study are available for other researchers from the first author upon reasonable request.