Behaviorism, Skinner, and Operant Conditioning: Considerations for Sport Coaching Practice

Figures & data

Table 2. Positive/negative reinforcement and punishment with sport coaching examples. Definitions adapted from Schunk (2012) and Skinner (1974).

Type:	Definition:	Coaching example:
Positive reinforcement	Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase desired behavior(s)	A tennis coach praises an athlete after a good performance
Negative reinforcement	Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase desired behavior(s)	A basketball coach stops gesturing disapprovingly toward their players after they successfully execute a set play in training
Positive punishment	Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease undesirable behavior(s)	A soccer coach makes the team stay an extra 10 minutes after training to make up the missed work from arriving 10 minutes late
Negative punishment	Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease undesirable behavior(s)	A lacrosse coach does not select a player for the match day squad due to their poor attitude and laziness during training

Table 1. Scheduling of reinforcement with sport coaching examples. Definitions adapted from Schunk (2012) and Skinner (1974).

Type:	Definition:	Coaching Example:
Continuous	Reinforcement provided after every correct response	During a shooting practice, a netball coach praises their goal shooter after every successful attempt
Intermittent	Reinforcement provided after some but not all responses	During a shooting practice, a netball coach praises their goal shooter after some but not all successful attempts (e.g., reinforcement follows no set pattern)
Fixed-ratio	Reinforcement provided after a set number of correct responses	During a shooting practice, a netball coach praises their goal shooter after a set number of successful attempts (e.g., reinforcement provided after every fifth successful attempt)
Variable-ratio	Reinforcement provided after a variable number of correct responses, based around a set average	During a shooting practice, a netball coach praises their goal shooter after every fifth successful attempt on average, but the number of successful attempts between reinforcement varies (e.g., reinforcement provided after the second, sixth and seventh successful attempt, averaging out at every fifth successful attempt)
Fixed-interval	Reinforcement provided after a set time interval	During a shooting practice, a netball coach praises their goal shooter for their successful attempts after a set time interval (e.g., reinforcement provided after every 5-minute interval)
Variable-interval	Reinforcement provided after variable time intervals, based around a set average	During a shooting practice, a netball coach praises their goal shooter for their successful attempts every 5 minutes on average, but the time intervals between reinforcement vary (e.g., reinforcement provided after every 2, 3, 7 and 8 minutes, averaging out at every 5 minutes)

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed.). Pearson.

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Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. Alfred A. Knopf.

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