The human resource architecture model: A twenty-year review and future research directions

Figures & data

Figure 1. The annual number of articles citing the three classic HR Architecture articles (1999-2018).

Table 1. Coding results of the substantively citing literature.

		Theoretical Applications	Empirical Validations	Critiques and Extensions
1. HC and HRM		38	22	33
		Beatty et al., 2003 Jiang et al., 2012 Bayo-Moriones et al., 2013 Gelens et al., 2013 Nieves & Quintana, 2018	Lepak & Snell, 2002 González & Verano‐ Tacorante, 2004, 2006 De Vos & Dries, 2013 McDonnell et al., 2016 Schmidt, Pohler, et al., 2018	Purcell et al., 2004 Kulkarni & Ramamoorthy, 2005 Kang et al., 2007 Bryant & Allen, 2009 Zhou et al., 2012
2. Individual Quadrant of the HR Architecture	2.1 Q1: for HC with High Uniqueness and High Value	9	10	12
		López‐Cabrales et al., 2006 Nijs et al., 2014 Chuang et al., 2016	Lepak et al., 2007 Boon & Kalshoven, 2014 Tlaiss et al., 2017	Nesheim et al., 2007 Meyers & van Woerkom, 2014 Krausert, 2017
	2.2 Q2: for HC with Low Uniqueness and High Value	1	0	1
		López‐Cabrales et al., 2006		Kirkpatrick et al., 2019
	2.3 Q3: for HC with Low Uniqueness and Low Value	1	1	5
		Marler et al., 2002	Masters & Miles, 2002	Rubery et al., 2015 Zhang et al., 2015 Litwin et al., 2017
	2.5 Q4: for HC with High Uniqueness and Low Value	3	1	1
		Cardon, 2003 Gardner, 2005	Melián-González & Bulchand-Gidumal, 2009	Gardner, 2005
3. Complexity of the HR Architecture	3.1 Internal Congruence among Employment Mode, Employment Relationship, and HR Configuration	1	2	2
		Munyon et al., 2011	Tsai et al., 2009 Koulikoff & Harrison, 2010	Palthe & Kossek, 2003 Kirkpatrick et al., 2019
	3.2 Interactions between Multiple Employment Modes/ Employment Relationships/ HR Configurations	2	9	7
		Anagnostopoulos & Siebert, 2015 Banks & Kepes, 2015	Lepak et al., 2003 Zatzick & Iverson, 2006 Roca-Puig et al., 2008	Broschak & Davis-Blake, 2006 Way et al., 2010 Banerjee et al., 2012
4. Dynamics of the HR Architecture		12	21	1
		Chi et al., 2008 Kang & Snell, 2009 Soo et al., 2017	López‐Cabrales et al., 2011 Jiang et al., 2012 Chang, 2015	Fister & Seth, 2015
5. Effect of Employment Modes on Firms via HR Flexibility	5.1 Employment Mode- Flexibility-Performance	3	8	4
		Roca‐Puig et al., 2011 Way et al., 2015 Hansen et al., 2019	Lepak et al., 2003 López‐Cabrales et al., 2009 Ahammad et al., 2015	Koch et al., 2013 Roca-Puig et al., 2015 Zhang et al., 2015
	5.2 Moderation of Environmental Dynamism	0	2	0
			Lepak et al., 2003 Wu, 2011
	5.3 Moderation of Technological Intensity	1	3	0
		Kalaignanam & Varadarajan, 2012	Lepak et al., 2003 Kintana et al., 2006 Yanadori & Kang, 2011

Note:

* The table presents representative articles, not all articles. The number in the upper left corner of each cell indicates the total number of articles coded to the corresponding cell. One article can be coded to multiple cells. The review articles are excluded from the coding.

Table 2. Empirical results from testing the effects of HC on HRM.

Study	Human capital	HRMs	Countries	Industries	Methods	Results
Lepak & Snell, 2002	Value and uniqueness of human capital	Knowledge-based employment, job-based employment, contract work, and alliance/partnership	Not mentioned	Not mentioned	Questionnaire survey	Partially supported
González & Tacorante, 2004	Value and uniqueness of human capital	Selection/training/compensation/performance appraisal/working conditions	Spain	Not mentioned	Questionnaire survey	Supported
Gardner, 2005	Value of human capital	A firm’s response to the loss of employees	USA	Software	Computer-assisted telephone interviewing	Supported
Melián‐González & Verano‐Tacoronte, 2006	strategic value and uniqueness	High commitment practices or best practices: selective hiring, extensive training, performance pay or incentives, performance appraisal, employment security, staff participation, autonomy	Spain	Not mentioned	Questionnaire survey	Partially supported
Gowan & Lepak, 2007	General/ Firm-specific/ occupation-specific human capital	Salary at the time of job end/ starting salary for the new job	Not mentioned	Not mentioned	Questionnaire survey	Supported
Ramirez & Fornerino, 2007	Levels of technology across organizations	Recruitment/selection/training/compensation practices	France and Britain	Diverse sectors: chemical, pharmaceuticals, electronics, IT and software, automotive, telecommunications, metal, food and services	Questionnaire survey	Partially supported
Yanadori & Kang, 2011	R&D family and administrative family	Compensation practices	USA	High technology	Secondary dataset	Supported
McKeown & Lindorf, 2011	Job types (for internal and externalized workforce)	Strategic HRM	Australia	Public administration	Case study	Not supported
Urtasun & Núñez, 2012	work-based competences	Career prospects (full-time, permanent, development and manager)	Spain	Not mentioned	Secondary dataset	Supported
Clinton & Guest, 2013	Job level	HR practices: performance appraisal, training and development, skill use, job design, career management, communication of information, employee voice and participation	UK	Study 1: armed services; Study 2: diverse sectors across the manufacturing, education and retail/service	Questionnaire survey	Supported
De Vos & Dries, 2013	Value and uniqueness of human capital	Career management	Belgium	Goods, services and public sector	Questionnaire survey	Supported
Ferner & Almond, 2013	Managers and the largest occupational group	Pay and performance management systems	UK	Not mentioned	Telephone screening survey	Supported
Benzinger, 2016	Core and peripheral workforce	Organizational socialization tactics	Germany	Education, finance, and manufacturing	Questionnaire survey	Supported
McDonnell et al., 2016	Key group, managerial group and largest occupational group	Compensation practices	Ireland	Not mentioned	Structured interview	Supported
Hong & Honig, 2016	General human capital	Compensation practices	Ontario, Canada	Education	Surveys and archival data	Supported
Vyas & Zhu, 2017	Value and uniqueness of human capital	Civil service training	Hong Kong, Singapore and UK	Public administration	Case study	Supported
Schmidt, Pohler, et al., 2018	Value of human capital	HPWS investment	Canadian and USA	Tourism	Questionnaire survey	Supported
Okay-Somerville & Scholarios, 2019	Skill level of workforce	Skill development and skill deployment HRM	UK	Not mentioned	Secondary dataset	Supported

Table 3. Empirical results from testing the effects of the fit between HC and HRM on employee attitudes and behaviors.

Study	HC	HRM	Employee Attitudes and Behaviors	Countries	Industries	Methods	Results
Clinton & Guest, 2013	Job levels	HR practices (performance appraisal, training and development, skill use, job design, career management, communication of information, employee voice and participation)	Organizational commitment, intention to quit and work-related well	UK	Study 1: armed services; Study 2: diverse sectors across the manufacturing, education and retail/service	Questionnaire survey	Not supported
Decramer et al., 2013	Academic ranks	Tight control	Employee performance management system satisfaction	Flemish	Education	Questionnaire survey	Supported
van Harten et al., 2017	Job types	Managerial support	Employment opportunities	Netherlands	Medical sanitation	Questionnaire survey	Not supported
Schmidt, Pohler, et al., 2018	Strategic values	HPWS	Turnover intention and OCB	Canada and USA	Tourism and hospitality	Questionnaire survey	Supported
Okay-Somerville & Scholar iOS, 2019	Workforce skill composition	Skills- oriented HRM	Job satisfaction and work-related affective wellbeing	UK	Not mentioned	Secondary dataset	Not supported

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