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Abstract
Contrary to earlier notions that religious diversity, ethnicity and the lack of economic development are the main factors responsible for the surge of violence in Nigeria, this article argues that the means of attaining or retaining political authority by politicians are responsible for violent conflicts and the formation of insurgent groups. Using theories of patrimonialism and prebendalism, the article argues that political power and authority are often channelled for personal use in a predatory manner that results in the formation of insurgent groups. The aim of this article is to proffer a different analytical framework for the understanding of the formation of insurgent groups based on political authority.
Notes
1. Cyril and Rustad, Oil and Insurgency in the Niger Delta.
2. Dahl, “The Concept of Power,” 201–15.
3. Steven, Power: A Radical View.
4. Evans, “Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses,” 561–87.
5. Kukah, “Boko Haram: Some Reflections on Causes and Effects.”
6. Interview in Rivers state, Nigeria, August 2013.
7. Zolberg, “The Structure of Political Conflict in the New States of Tropical Africa,” 70–8.
8. Vogt, “Ethnic Exclusion and Ethno-Nationalist Conflicts How the Struggle over Access to the State Can Escalate.”
9. Azarya, “Reordering State-society Relations,” 3–21.
10. Kwaja, “Nigeria’s Pernicious Drivers of Ethno-Religious Conflicts,” 4.
11. Braathen et al., “Ethnicity Kills?” 3–22.
12. Joseph, “Class, State and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria,” 21–38.
13. Boas and Dunn, “Understanding African Guerrillas.”
14. Braathen et al., “Ethnicity Kills?” 11.
15. Alexander, “African Presidents’ Dilemma.”
16. Braathen et al., “Ethnicity Kills?” 12–16.
17. Roett, Brazil: Politics in a Patrimonial Society.
18. Schmitter, “Still the Century of Corporatism?” 93–107.
19. Oseni, “Internally Generated Revenue (IGR) in Nigeria,” 1050–66.
20. See note 17 above.
21. Joseph, “Class, State and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria.”
22. Clapham, Third World Politics.
23. Smith, “ANC’s Secrecy Bill Seen as Assault on South African Press Freedom.”
24. Adebanwi and Obadare, “When Corruption Fights Back,” 185–213.
25. Albert, “The Sociocultural Politics of Ethnic and Religious Conflicts.”
26. Lewis, “Identity, Institutions and Democracy in Nigeria.”
27. U.S Energy Information Administration, “Nigeria.”
28. BBC, “Is Nigeria Serious about Tacking Corruption?”
29. Fox News, “Nigerian Generals Found Guilty of Arming Boko Haram.”
30. This Day Live, “PIB: Northerners Accused of Owning 83% of Oil Blocks.”
31. Interview carried out in the Niger Delta October 2013.
32. Metz and Millen, “Insurgency and Counter-Insurgency in the 21st Century.”
33. Ibid., 35.
34. Merari, “Terrorism as a Strategy of Insurgency,” 213–51.
35. Eberlein, “On the Road to the State’s Perdition?” 573–96.
36. Florquin and Berman, “Armed Groups and Small Arms in ECOWAS Member States (1998–2004).”
37. Akinbobola, “Niger Delta Crises.”
38. Okonta and Douglas, Where Vultures Feast.
39. International Crises Group, “The Swamps of Insurgency.”
40. Interview with a community leader in September 2013.
41. Francis, Lapin and Rossiasco, “Securing Development and Peace in the Niger Delta.”
42. International Crises Group, 2006.
43. Nwonwu, “The Politics of Oil Exploitation.”
44. Punch Newspaper, “PDP Governors Bought Guns for Thugs- Atiku.”
45. Courson, “Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND).”
46. Nwajiaku-Dahoe, ‘The Politics of Amnesty in the Niger Delta.”
47. Interview with a senior member of MEND, September 2013.
48. See note 45 above.
49. Aguwa, “Religious Conflict in Nigeria,” 338.
50. Kayode-Adedeji, “Nigeria 2015.”
51. Aguwa, “Religious Conflict in Nigeria.”
52. Interview with senior government official in Nigeria, September 2013.
53. Human Rights Watch, “Political Shari’a?”
54. American Foreign Policy Council, Boko Haram: World Almanac of Islamism.
55. Abdulmajeed Bello, “Boko Haram: The Greatest security threat to the sovereignty of Nigeria,” 66–72.
56. Onuoha, “The Islamist Challenge,” 54–67.
57. Danjibo, “Islamic Fundamentalism and Sectarian Violence.”
58. Ibid.
59. Okonkwo, “Contemporary Issues in Nomadic, Minority and Almajiri Education, Problems and Prospects,” 19–27.
60. Kriesch and Scholz, “Nigeria’s Almajiri Schools.”
61. Vanguard newspaper, “Boko haram: Court denies Kogi Varsity lecturer, 2 others bail.”
62. Onuoha, “The Islamist Challenge.”
63. Akanji, “The Politics of Combating Domestic Terrorism in Nigeria.”
64. Ibid.
65. Oyeniyi, “One Voice, Multiple Tongues,” 73–97.
66. See note 45 above.
67. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War.
68. Weapons and Warfare, “Mercenaries in Africa.”
69. The resource distribution formula is the term used for the allocation of revenue that accrues from oil exploration in Nigeria. The oil producing states get an extra 13% of the revenue.
70. Oseni, “Internally Generated Revenue (IGR) in Nigeria.”
71. Human Rights Watch, “Spiralling Violence.”
72. Punch Newspaper, “Boko Haram has Infiltrated My Government- Jonathan.”
73. Alli, “N115b Loot: Ex-Air Chiefs, Politicians Top Refund List.”
74. Interview carried out in the Niger Delta, October 2013.
75. Interview carried out in Lagos, September 2013.
76. Amnesty International, “Nigeria: Senior Members of Military Must Be Investigated for War Crimes.”