A comprehensive review of heavy metals (Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, Ni²⁺) removal from wastewater using low-cost adsorbents and possible revalorisation of spent adsorbents in blood fingerprint application

Figures & data

Table 1. Techniques for eliminating heavy metals in wastewater [25].

Treatment technologies	Advantages	Disadvantages
Membrane filtration	Good removal of heavy metals	Sludge production and very expensive
Ion exchange	Good removal of a wide range of heavy metals	Absorbent material requires regeneration and disposal problems.
Electrochemical treatment	Rapid process but effective for particular metal ions	High energy cost and generation of by-products
Coagulation/flocculation	Economically feasible	High sludge formation
Adsorption	Low sludge; effective, Low-cost material; low metal concentration	Regeneration requires chemicals; modification required for better performance
Electrocoagulation	easy operation, can even settle small colloidal particles	Require regular replacement and maintenance of electrodes

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the chemical precipitation treatment process [27].

Figure 2. Diagram of the electrochemical reactor (Adapted from: [32]).

Figure 3. Membrane-based separation process (Adapted from: [33]).

Figure 4. A typical ion exchange ion treatment process [38].

Figure 5. Schematic representation of adsorption molecules onto the surface [40]

Table 2. Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Ni²⁺ ions for removal by MNM.

Adsorbent	pH	Adsorption capacity (mg/g)	Comment(s)	References
Pb(ll)
ZnO nanoparticles	5	84.66	Regeneration, reuse of spent adsorbent, and the effect of competing ions are not reported.	[44]
Chitosan – iron oxide nanomposite	5	214.9	Regeneration reported, reuse of spent adsorbent, the effect of competing ion, real water sample not explored.	[45]
Polyaniline/Fe3O4	9.3	111.1	Real water samples explored the effect of competing ions, reuse of spent adsorbent, and regeneration studies were not conducted.	[46]
TiO2 chitosan coated	6	475.50	Regeneration studies were conducted, on the effect of competing ions, but real water sample was not studied	[47]
Cd (II)
ZnO nanoparticles	7	119.75	Regeneration studies were conducted, but the effect of competing ions and real water samples was not studied.	[48]
ZnO nanosheets	5	97.36	The effect of competing ions, a real water sample was not conducted.	[49]
γ-Fe2O3/Fe-doped hydroxyapatite	5	257.9	Desorption and regeneration studies were conducted, and the effect of competing ions was explored.	[50]
Activated/ZrO2 carbon	6	166.7	Real water samples were assessed, but regeneration studies, and the effect of competing ions were not conducted.	[51]
MnO2 loaded resin Ni(II)	6	21.5	The effect of competing ions was studied, real water samples and reuse of spent adsorbent were not investigated.	[52]
Lemon peel biomass chemically modified with TiO2 nanoparticles	6	15.36	The effects of competing ions, reuse of spent adsorbent, and real water samples were not investigated.	[53]
Fe3O4 NPs	5.5	11.3	Real water sample, reuse of spent adsorbent, and the effect of competing ions were not explored.	[55]
Fe3O4-MnO2	6	55.6	Reuse of spent adsorbent, real water sample, and the effect of competing ions was not conducted.	[56]
Graphene/δ-MnO2 composite	8	30.63	Desorption studies were explored, and real water samples and the effect of competing ions were not investigated.	[57]

Table 3. Adsorption capacities of carbonaceous-based NM for removing Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Ni²⁺ ions from wastewater.

Adsorbent	pH	Adsorption capacity (mg/g)	Comment(s)	References
Pb(ll)
Acidified MWCNTs	9	166	The effect of co-existing ions was studied; real water samples and the reuse of spent adsorbent were not conducted.	[62]
CNTs	5	76.7	Desorption was investigated, Real water samples, reuse of spent adsorbent, and the effect of competing ions were not explored.	[63]
Al2O3/MWCNTs	7	27.21	The real water sample was studied, But the effect of competing ions and the reuse of spent adsorbent was not explored.	[64]
Graphene oxide		555	Desorption and regeneration studies were investigated, and real water samples and the effect of competing ions were not conducted.	[65]
Cd (II)
Carbon nanofibers	8	0.238	Desorption and adsorbent regeneration were studied, but the effect of competing ions, and real wastewater samples were not investigated.	[66]
MWCNTs	6.5	0.05	Real water sample, regeneration study, reuse of spent adsorbent, and effect of competing ions was not undertaken.	[67]
MWCNTs with 3-aminopyrazole	8–9	43.103	The effect of competing ions and real water samples was studied. Desorption studies were not undertaken.	[68]
Acidified MWCNTs	9	101	The effect of competing ions was explored, real water sample and a desorption study were undertaken.	[61]
Reduced graphene oxide	-	24.47	Real water sample, regeneration study, reuse of spent adsorbent, and the effect of competing ions was not investigated.	[69]
Ni(II)
Purified MWCNTs	6	55.55	Real water samples, regeneration studies, reuse of spent adsorbents, and the effect of competing ions were not explored.	[70]
Phosphine functionalized MWCNTs	6	100	Real water sample, regeneration study, reuse of spent adsorbent, and the effect of competing ions was not explored.	[71]
Graphene/δ-MnO2 composite	8	30.63	Desorption studies were explored, but real water samples and the effect of competing ions were not investigated.	[56]
graphene oxide	6	38.61	No real water samples, regeneration study, reuse of spent adsorbent, or effect of competing ions studied.	[72]

Table 4. Summary of polymer-based NMs for adsorption of Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Ni²⁺ ions.

Adsorbent	pH	Adsorption capacity (mg/g)	Comment(s)	References
Pb(ll)
Chitosan/vanillin	6	66.63	Regeneration study, reuse of spent adsorbent, the effect of competing ions, and real water samples were not conducted.	[74]
Chitin microspheres/glycine	5.5	574.70	No application of real water samples, regeneration study, reuse of spent adsorbent, or effect of competing ions was reported.	[75]
Chitosan/salicylaldehyde	7	123.67	Real water samples were evaluated, and the reuse of spent adsorbent, and the effect of competing ions were not investigated.	[76]
Chitosan/ nanofibrillated cellulose aerogel	5	252.6	Desorption and reusability were conducted, and the real water sample and competing ions were explored.	[77]
Chitin/palygorskite nanofibers (ChNFs)	7	53.7	None of the reuse of spent adsorbent, application of real water samples, effect of competing ions, and regeneration study were investigated.	[78]
Cd (II)
Attapulgite/CoFe2O4@SiO2-chitosan /EDTA	6	127.79	A reusability study was done, Application of real water samples, and the effect of competing ions was not investigated.	[79]
Chitosan/diatomaceous earth composite	6.5	108	Application of real water samples not reported.	[80]
Fe3O4/cyclodextrin polymer nanocomposites	5.5-6	27.7	Desorption and reusability were reported, but real water samples were not investigated.	[81]
modified chitosan TiO2 and SiO2 hydrogel nanocomposites	7	344 and 312	Reuse of spent adsorbent, application of real water samples, and effect of competing ions was reported.	[82]
polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes/chitosan nanocomposite	7	36.2	None of the information was reported on real water samples, competing ions effect, and reuse of spent adsorbent.	[83]
Ni(II)
Alginate/polyvinyl alcohol/zeolite	5.5	81.51	The application of real water samples, and the effect of competing ions were not reported.	[84]
Nanochitin-contained magnetic chitosan microfibers	4.1	-	A real water samples experiment was not reported.	[82]
Chitosan Immobilized on Bentonite	-	15.8228	Competitive adsorption of heavy metals was reported.	[85]
Sulfated Chitosan/PVA	6	80.6451	None of the information was reported on real water samples, competing ions effect, and reuse of spent adsorbent.	[86]
EDTA – and/or DTPA-modified Chitosan		71.0	Real water samples, and competing ions effect were not explored.	[87]

Table 5. Remediation of Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, Ni²⁺ ions by activated carbon.

Adsorbent	pH	Adsorption capacity (mg/g)	Comment(s)	References
Pb(ll)
Activated carbon pistachio wood	6	190.2	The reuse of spent adsorbent, application of real water samples, and effect of competing ions was not investigated.	[92]
Date Pit	5	34.18	Application of real water samples, reuse of spent adsorbent, and effect of competing ions were not investigated.	[93]
Albizia lebbeck	5	4.38	Application on real water samples, reuse of spent adsorbent, effect of competing ions was not conducted.	[94]
Prawn Shell	8	256	No information was investigated on real water samples, regeneration studies, reuse of spent adsorbent, and the effect of competing ions.	[95]
Wheat straw	6	74.63	The effect of competing ions was not investigated.	[96]
Cd (II)
Pomegranate Peel	6	53.8	Application of real water samples, reuse of spent adsorbent, and effect of competing ions were not investigated.	[93]
Leucaena leucocephala	7	70.423	No information was reported on the reuse of spent adsorbent, its application on real water samples, and the effect of competing ions.	[97]
Oil palm shell	6	227.27	Reuse study not reported	[98]
Sugarcane bagasse	4	2.0140	The reuse of spent adsorbent, the effect of competing ions, and real water samples were not reported.	[99]
Melia azedarach	5	4.20	Application on real water samples, reuse of spent adsorbent, the effect of competing ions was not reported.	[94]
Ni(II)
Activated carbon Mespilus germanica Leaf	7	13.08	Reuse of spent adsorbent, the effect of competing ions, and real water samples were not conducted.	[100]
palm kernel chaff	9	120.6	None of the information on the effect of competing ion, reuse of spent adsorbent, or real water sample were conducted.	[101]
Mangosteen shell	5	57.14	The effect of competing ions, real water samples, and reuse of spent adsorbent was not investigated.	[102]
doum-palm seed	7	13.51	The effect of competing ions, real water samples, and reuse of spent adsorbent was not reported.	[103]
Sawdust	7	6.6	Regeneration studies were reported, but the effect of competing ions, and real water samples were not investigated.	[104]

Table 6. Adsorption of Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Ni²⁺ ions by agricultural wastes.

Adsorbent	pH	Adsorption capacity (mg/g)	Comment(s)	References
Pb(ll)
Yam peels	6	93.36	Regeneration and desorption study, the effect of competing ions, and real water samples were not explored.	[110]
Walnut shell	4	9.9	None of the regeneration and desorption studies, the effect of competing ions, and real water samples were explored.	[111]
Lentil husk	5	81.4	Desorption studies were explored, but real water samples and the effect of competing ions were not conducted.	[112]
Soya bean	4	0.9	None of the reuse of spent adsorbent, the effect of competing ions, and real water samples were explored.	[113]
Banana Peels	5.5	66.7	The effects of competing ions were explored.	[114]
Cd (II)
Lentil husk	5	107.31	The effect of competing ions was investigated	[115]
Apple peels	5.5	0.8	No reuse of spent adsorbent, Effect of competing ion, and the real water sample was investigated	[116]
Orange peels	7	140	Desorption and reusability studies were conducted.	[117]
Sawdust	7	21.3	None of the effects of competing ions, real water samples, reuse of spent adsorbent, regeneration study, and desorption were explored.	[115]
Mandarin peels	5.5	3.33	No reuse of spent adsorbent, Effect of competing ion, and the real water sample were investigated	[118]
Ni(II)
Sugarcane bagasse	6	3.008	Real water sample, reuse of spent adsorbent, and effect of competing ions, was not explored.	[119]
Raw hemp felt	5	2.4	Application on real water samples and the effect of competing ions were investigated.	[114]
Corncob	8	0.0517	Effect of competing ion, real water sample, reuse of spent adsorbent, regeneration study and desorption were not conducted.	[120]
Cassava husk powder	6	1.388	Regeneration study and desorption, real water sample, and Effect of competing ions were not explored.	[121]
Cashew nutshell	5	18.868	A desorption study was investigated.	[122]

Table 7. Summary of removal of Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Ni²⁺ ions by zeolites.

Adsorbent	pH	Adsorption capacity (mg/g)	Comment(s)	References
Pb(ll)
Zeolite	6	45.0	Effect of competing ion, real water sample, reuse of spent adsorbent, regeneration study and desorption were not investigated.	[126]
Zeolite based on oil shale ash	5	224.72	No spent adsorbent and application on real water samples were studied.	[124]
calcium treated bentonite clay	4	0.203	Reuse of spent adsorbent, the effect of competing ions, and a real water sample was not conducted.	[127]
Calcium Alginate Beads	7		Reuse of spent adsorbent, effect of competing ion, and real water sample was not included.	[128]
Cd (II)
Zeolite based on oil shale ash	5	118.34	No spent adsorbent and application on real water samples were studied.	[124]
calcium treated bentonite clay	4	32.17	Reuse of spent adsorbent, Effect of competing ion, and a real water sample was not conducted.	[127]
Calcium Alginate Beads	6	27.4	The effect of competing ions, reuse of spent adsorbent, and real water samples was not investigated.	[128]
natural and Fe(III)-modified zeolite	9.8 and, 8.0	66, and 133	Effect of competing ion, regeneration study, desorption, and real water sample was not investigated.	[129]
Ni(II)
Jordan natural zeolite	4	153.846	No regeneration and desorption, study effect of competing ions, and application on real water samples were investigated.	[123]
Zeolites	7	28.57	Effect of competing ions, real water samples, reuse of spent adsorbent, regeneration study, and desorption were not investigated.	[126]
Zeolite based on oil shale ash	6	53.02	No spent adsorbent and application on real water samples were studied.	[124]
silica xerogel	10–11	50	Reusability studies were conducted, Effect of competing ins, and real water samples were not assessed.	[130]
lower globular magnesium hydroxide	6	287.11	Recyclability study was assessed, and no effect of co-existing ion, real water sample was investigated.	[131]

Figure 6. Images and minuates of latent fingerprint details [139].

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