Habitual coffee and caffeinated beverages consumption is inversely associated with arterial stiffness and central and peripheral blood pressure

Figures & data

Table 1. Participant’s characteristics stratified by self-reported daily coffee and caffeine consumption (n.1095).

	Overall polpulation	No coffee and caffeine drinkers (n.110)	Light coffee and caffeine drinkers (n.778)	Moderate coffee and caffeine drinkers (n.207)	p Value
Demographics
Age, years	56.2 ± 13.2	49.1 ± 14.7	53.9 ± 13.8	52.3 ± 11.9	<0.001
Males (%)	478 (43.7)	38 (34.5)	330 (42.4)	110 (53.1)	<0.001
Clinical Characteristics
BMI, kg/m^2	25.1 ± 4.3	23.6 ± 3.9	25.1 ± 4.3	25.8 ± 4.3	<0.001
Waist, cm	89.2 ± 12.8	84.9 ± 13.5	89.2 ± 12.6	91.7 ± 12.6	<0.001
Heart reate, beats/min	68.7 ± 10.7	68.8 ± 10.9	68.3 ± 10.9	69.4 ± 9.9	0.437
TBW, L/m	23.0 ± 4.1	21.6 ± 3.5	22.9 ± 4.2	24.1 ± 4.2	<0.001
Current smoking, (%)	212 (19.4)	12 (10.9)	133 (17.2)	67 (32.5)	<0.001
Diabetes, (%)	21 (1.9)	2 (1.8)	15 (1.9)	4 (1.9)	0.997
Hypertension, (%)	178 (16.3)	13 (11.8)	136 (17.5)	29 (14.0)	0.200
Hypercolesterolemia (%)	161 (14.7)	10 (9.1)	130 (16.7)	21 (10.1)	0.013
Laboratory parametrs
Fasting blood glucose, mmol/L	5.9 ± 0.77	5.8 ± 0.90	5.9 ± 0.74	5.9 ± 0.83	0.175
Magnesium, mmol/L	0.83 ± 0.06	0.82 ± 0.09	0.84 ± 0.06	0.83 ± 0.062	0.133
Total cholesterol, mmol/L	5.3 ± 1.1	5.2 ± 1.17	5.4 ± 1.07	5.4 ± 0.98	0.199
HDL, mmol/L	1.6 ± 0.42	1.63 ± 0.43	1.59 ± 0.43	1.52 ± 0.40	0.037
LDL,mmol/L	3.6 ± 1.03	3.4 ± 1.10	3.6 ± 1.04	3.7 ± 0.99	0.126
Triglycerides, mmol/L	1.12 ± 0.81	1.01 ± 0.66	1.13 ± 0.87	1.14 ± 0.69	0.314
Creatinine, µmol/L	75.6 ± 16.6	74.5 ± 17.12	75.6 ± 16.32	76.1 ± 17.3	0.719
Sodium excretion 24 h, mmol	178.4 ± 88.9	169.8 ± 78.24	181.4 ± 92.4	171.9 ± 80.30	0.246
Potassium excrection, mmol	61.7 ± 21.4	55.7 ± 18.9	61.1 ± 21.5	66.9 ± 21.5	<0.001

BMI: body mass index; HDL: high density lipoprotein; LDL: low density lipoprotein; TBW: total body water. p Value from χ² test or ANOVA.

Table 2. Comparison of Arterial Stiffness, central and peripheral BP parameters by coffee consumption.

Arterial stiffness and central aortic pressure parameters	No-coffee and caffeine drinkers	Light coffee and caffeine drinkers	Moderate coffee and caffeine drinkers	F/χ2	p Value
PWV	6.9 ± 1.8^¥	7.4 ± 1.8^¥	7.1 ± 1.5^¥	3.15	0.001
AIx (HR75)	24.4 ± 8.3	24.9 ± 8.1^¥	23.3 ± 7.5^¥	3.60	0.028
cSBP	110.2 ± 12.2	110.2 ± 11.1	110.0 ± 11.7	0.023	0.977
cDBP	76.2 ± 9.8	75.7 ± 8.9	76.3 ± 9.2	0.494	0.610
Pheripheral blood Pressure
Systolic BP	118.4 ± 12.4	119.2 ± 11.6	119.0 ± 12.1	0.202	0.817
Diastolic BP	74.1 ± 9.4	74.1 ± 8.6	74.7 ± 8.9	0.394	0.674
MAP	94.4 ± 10.1	94.7 ± 9.4	94.9 ± 9.9	0.140	0.869
PP	44.4 ± 7.8	45.1 ± 7.6	44.3 ± 7.4	1.128	0.324

PWV: Pulse Wave Velocity; Alx (HR75): augmentation index; cSBP: central systolic blood pressure; cDBP: central diastolic blood pressure; SBP: Systolic Blood Pressure; DBP: Diastolic Blood Pressure; PP: pulse pressure; MAP: Mean Arterial Pressure.

^¥p Value <0.05 according to post hoc testing comparisons No-Coffee Drinkers vs Light Coffee Drinkers and Light Coffee Drinkers vs Moderate Coffee Drinkers.

Table 3. Linear regression exploring the correlation between coffee consumption and arterial stiffness parameters and central hemodynamics.

	β-coefficient	Confidence interval	p Value
PWV
No coffee and caffeine drinkers	Reference
Light coffee and caffeine drinkers	−0.15	−0.26 to −0.04	<0.001
Moderate coffee and caffeine drinkers	−0.11	−0.19 to −0.02	0.018
AI
No coffee and caffeine drinkers	Reference
Light coffee and caffeine drinkers	−0.81	−1.27 to 0.36	0.277
Moderate coffee and caffeine drinkers	−0.45	−1.77 to 0.15	0.100

PWV: pulse wave velocity; AI: augmentation index. Multivariate models were adjusted according to: sex, age, body mass index, diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia, personal history of CVD, current smoking, consumption of vegetables and fruit, alcohol consumption, waist circumference, heart rate, cardiac output, mean arterial blood pressure, peripheral resistance, augmentation pressure, coefficient of reflection, total body water, cholesterol LDL and HDL, triglycerides, creatinine, and urinary potassium and sodium.

Table 4. Linear regression exploring the correlation between coffee and caffeine consumption and Peripheral and Central Blood Pressure Parameters.

	β-coefficient	Confidence interval	p Value
Pheripheral BP parameters
SBP
No coffee and caffeine drinkers	reference
Light coffee and caffeine drinkers	−3.61	−5.91 to −1.32	<0.001
Moderate coffee and caffeine drinkers	−2.80	−4.75 to −0.84	<0.001
DBP
No coffee and caffeine drinkers	reference
Light coffee and caffeine drinkers	−2.48	−4.16 to −0.80	<0.001
Moderate coffee and caffeine drinkers	−1.68	−3.11 to −0.26	0.021
MAP
No coffee and caffeine drinkers	reference
Light coffee and caffeine drinkers	−3.00	−4.79 to −1.21	<0.001
Moderate coffee and caffeine drinkers	−2.18	−3.70 to −0.65	<0.001
PP
No coffee and caffeine drinkers	reference
Light coffee and caffeine drinkers	−1.10	−2.55 to 0.36	0.141
Moderate coffee and caffeine drinkers	−1.18	−2.89 to 0.53	0.177
Central BP parameters
cSBP
No coffee and caffeine drinkers	reference
Light coffee and caffeine drinkers	−3.21	−5.09- to −1.32	<0.001
Moderate coffee and caffeine drinkers	−4.28	−6.25 to −1.81	<0.001
cDBP
No coffee and caffeine drinkers	reference
Light coffee and caffeine drinkers	−2.18	−3.67 to −0.69	<0.001
Moderate coffee and caffeine drinkers	−3.00	−4.75 to −1.26	<0.001

SBP: Systolic Blood Pressure; DBP: Diastolic Blood Pressure; PP: pulse pressure; MAP: Mean Arterial Pressure cSBP: central systolic blood pressure; cDBP: central diastolic blood pressure. Multivariate models were adjusted according to: sex, age, body mass index, diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia, personal history of CVD, current smoking, consumption of vegetables and fruit, alcohol consumption, waist circumference, heart rate, cardiac output, peripheral resistance, augmentation pressure, coefficient of reflection, total body water, cholesterol LDL and HDL, triglycerides, creatinine, and urinary potassium and sodium.