Effect of fibre fortification of low FODMAP pasta

Figures & data

Table 1. Recipe of the low FODMAP control pasta (LFCP) and pasta enriched with different dietary fibre ingredients.

	LFCP	Bamboo fibre	Cellulose	Psyllium	Guar gum
Starch (%)	85.00	71.00	74.00	64.00	67.00
Gluten (%)	15.00	15.00	15.00	15.00	15.00
Fibre Ingredient (%)	–	14.00	11.00	21.00	18.00
Table salt (%)	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.50
Tap water (%)	30.00	37.90	40.50	83.50	88.70

Notes: The quantities are given in % based on the sum of starch, gluten and fibre ingredients which results in 100%. Table salt and tap water are added additionally.

Table 2. List of sensory attributes with agreed definitions and scale end anchors properties.

Attributes	Description	Scale anchors
Colour intensity	The intensity of colour from dark to bright	0 – Dark	10 – Bright
Surface smoothness	Glossy, watery and smooth surface	0 – Not smooth	10 – Very smooth
Firmness	The force required to bite down on three pasta strands using the molar teeth during the first bite	0 – Not firm	10 – Very firm
Chewiness	Force required to masticate the three pasta strands three times with the molars	0 – Not chewy	10 – Very chewy
Adhesiveness to teeth	Characterised by pasta pieces that adhere to the teeth during chewing	0 – Not adhesive	10 – very adhesive
Graininess	The coarseness /feeling of sand grains between the teeth just after swallowing	0 – Not grainy	10 – very grainy
Sweetness	The level of sweetness in the pasta measured during chewing.	0 – Not sweet	10 – Very sweet
Bitterness	The level of bitterness in the pasta measured during chewing	0 – Not bitter	10 – Very bitter
Aftertaste	Combination of roughness in flavour such as: astringency, bitterness and harshness perceived 30 s after swallowing.	0 – No aftertaste	10 – Very strong aftertaste

Table 3. Technological properties of dough formulations/cooked pasta and the compositional/nutritional properties (presented on an “as is” basis) of commercial control (CCP), low FODMAP control (LFCP) and the fibre-fortified products.

	CCP	LFCP	Bamboo fibre	Cellulose	Psyllium	Guar gum
Farinograph
Water absorption (%)	n.a.	30.00^1	37.90^a	40.50^a	83.50^b	88.70^b
GlutoPeak
MT (BU)	n.a.	9.33 ± 0.58*^a	94.00 ± 1.00*^c	71.33 ± 3.21*^b	108.00 ± 2.00**^d	143.33 ± 4.51**^e
PMT (s)	n.a.	11.33 ± 0.58*^a	26.67 ± 1.53*^b	52.00 ± 1.73*^c	11.00 ± 1.00**^a	9.00 ± 1.00**^a
Cooking parameters
OCT (min)	12.50^c	6.00^b	6.00^b	6.00^b	2.00^a	11.50^c
Cooking loss (%)	5.54 ± 0.86^bc	2.92 ± 0.02^a	7.79 ± 0.42^d	5.47 ± 1.30^bc	6.99 ± 1.34 ^cd	2.08 ± 0.24^a
Moisture (after cooking) (%)	49.13 ± 1.62^ab	51.02 ± 2.46^b	51.87 ± 1.88^b	48.18 ± 1.05^ab	70.98 ± 0.89^c	68.42 ± 0.99^c
Colour
L* (–)	69.41 ± 1.18^b	88.75 ± 6.21^c	87.53 ± 6.53^c	87.37 ± 6.79^c	52.20 ± 6.08^a	76.53 ± 6.61^b
TPA
Hardness (N)	1.95 ± 0.16^d	2.17 ± 0.24^e	1.05 ± 0.04^b	1.32 ± 0.11^c	n.d.^1	0.61 ± 0.08^a
Stickiness (N)	1.95 ± 0.39^a	4.84 ± 0.52^c	2.13 ± 0.09^a	3.91 ± 1.07^b	n.d.^1	4.41 ± 0.78^bc
Tensile Strength (N)	1.79 ± 0.31^b	2.36 ± 0.39^c	n.d.^1	1.71 ± 0.30^b	n.d.^1	1.37 ± 0.09^a
Ash (g/100 g)	0.15 ± 0.06^bcd	n.d.^2	0.06 ± 0.02^ab	0.09 ± 0.06^b	0.24 ± 0.01^d	0.12 ± 0.01^bc
Protein (g/100 g)	2.23 ± 0.29^a	3.73 ± 0.27^b	3.30 ± 0.18^b	3.28 ± 0.20^b	3.73 ± 0.35^b	2.73 ± 0.16^a
Fat (g/100 g)	0.47 ± 0.04^c	0.26 ± 0.03^ab	0.45 ± 0.11^c	0.38 ± 0.01^bc	0.55 ± 0.07^c	0.43 ± 0.06^c
Total dietary fibre (based on calculation (g/100 g) ***	1.70 ± 0.13	0.40 ± 0.08	6.10 ± 0.10	6.08 ± 0.05	6.11 ± 0.12	6.10 ± 0.10
Digestible Starch (g/100 g)	39.79 ± 5.41^d	36.14 ± 5.30 ^cd	26.94 ± 3.62^b	28.94 ± 1.22^bc	12.27 ± 0.70^a	15.25 ± 0.36^a
Total FODMAP (g/100 g)	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2
Fructan (g/100 g)	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2
GOS (g/100 g)	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2
Polyol (g/100 g)	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2	n.d.^2

Notes: MT – Maximum torque; PMT – peak maximum time; OCT – Optimal cooking time; L* – Lightness.

Mean ± standard deviation with different letters in row are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05).

n.a. – not applicable; n.d.¹ – not determinable as values are below minimum force; n.d.² – not determinable as contents are below 0.01 g/100 g for Ash or 0.005 g/100 g for FODMAPs.

¹Determined in preliminary trials (data not shown).

*GlutoPeak trials were executed using a 50/50 ratio between solid and liquid.

**GlutoPeak trials were executed using a 56/44 ratio between solid and liquid.

***Content based on calculation: The fibre content was calculated considering the recipe and the fibre content of each ingredient used. Moreover, the water uptake during cooking was included in the calculation which causes a decrease in fibre content compared to the uncooked pasta.

Figure 1. Photographs [.1], CLSM [.2] and SEM [.3] images of commercial control pasta (CCP) [A], low FODMAP control pasta (LFCP) [B] and low FODMAP pasta fortified with bamboo fibre [C], cellulose [D], psyllium [E] and guar gum [F].

Figure 2. Release of reducing sugars (RSR) in percent during in vitro starch digestion based on the digestible starch content of commercial control pasta (CCP), low FODMAP control pasta (LFCP) and low FODMAP pasta fortified with bamboo fibre, cellulose, psyllium and guar gum.

Table 4. QDA mean panel data and post hoc test groupings for the sensory properties of commercial control pasta (CCP), low FODMAP control (LFCP) and the fibre-fortified samples.

	CCP	LFCP	Bamboo	Cellulose	Psyllium
Appearance
Colour intensity	7.64 ± 1.18^a	7.30 ± 1.44^a	7.17 ± 1.56^a	6.68 ± 1.55^b	0.88 ± 0.53^c
Surface smoothness	7.03 ± 1.63^a	6.34 ± 1.53^ab	5.65 ± 1.89^b	5.25 ± 1.65^b	2.40 ± 1.19^c
Texture
Firmness	5.30 ± 1.56^a	2.92 ± 1.73^b	2.51 ± 1.33^b	2.50 ± 1.40^b	6.04 ± 1.51^a
Chewiness	4.28 ± 1.71^bc	3.33 ± 1.39^cd	2.56 ± 1.41^d	2.59 ± 1.04^d	5.60 ± 1.15^ab
Adhesiveness	2.30 ± 1.73^c	3.90 ± 2.11^bc	4.23 ± 1.99^ab	4.34 ± 1.79^a	3.74 ± 1.81^bc
Graininess	3.17 ± 2.70^a	1.86 ± 1.54^b	3.03 ± 1.89^a	3.58 ± 2.34^a	3.72 ± 1.66^a
Flavour
Sweetness	1.65 ± 1.29^a	2.16 ± 1.55^a	1.53 ± 1.41^a	1.77 ± 1.52^a	1.92 ± 1.33^a
Bitterness	0.45 ± 0.77^c	0.40 ± 0.55^c	0.68 ± 0.93^b	0.80 ± 1.06^ab	0.49 ± 0.78^c
Aftertaste	0.95 ± 1.58^a	1.45 ± 1.93^a	1.22 ± 1.54^a	1.87 ± 1.96^a	0.93 ± 1.47^a
Overall quality
Quality of appearance	3.67 ± 0.87^a	2.46 ± 0.98^a	1.92 ± 0.65^b	1.71 ± 0.75^b	1.54 ± 0.51^b
Quality of texture	3.29 ± 0.95^a	2.46 ± 1.02^a	2.25 ± 0.61^ab	1.96 ± 0.75^b	2.83 ± 0.70^a
Quality of flavour	3.42 ± 0.93^a	2.33 ± 1.24^b	2.17 ± 0.70^b	1.71 ± 0.62^b	1.75 ± 0.61^b

Note: Mean ± standard deviation with different letters in column are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05).

Table 5. Results of the Pearson correlation analysis for the technological quality parameters (hardness, stickiness, tensile strength and colour) and the sensory properties (firmness, chewiness, adhesiveness, graininess, quality of appearance and quality of texture).

	L*	Hardness	Stickiness	TS	Surface smoothness	FAB	C	A	G	QA	QT
L*	1.000	−0.177	−0.091	−0.122	−0.352	0.048	0.046	−0.023	−0.158	−0.111	−0.136
Hardness	−0.177	1.000	0.430	0.710**	0.397	0.297	0.150	−0.289	−0.164	0.626**	0.517**
Stickiness	−0.091	0.430	1.000	0.076	0.136	0.010	0.003	−0.149	−0.118	0.179	0.085
TS	−0.122	0.710**	0.076	1.000	0.389	0.019	−0.012	−0.166	−0.155	0.471	0.379
Colour intensity	−0.162	0.340	0.079	0.490	0.598**	−0.437	−0.527**	−0.148	−0.188	0.323	0.218
Surface smoothness	−0.352	0.397	0.136	0.389	1.000	−0.083	−0.207	−0.374	0.045	0.366	0.382
FAB	0.048	0.297	0.010	0.019	−0.083	1.000	0.754**	−0.232	0.211	0.366	0.383
C	0.046	0.150	0.003	−0.012	−0.207	0.754**	1.00	0.038	0.245	0.189	0.195
A	−0.023	−0.289	−0.149	−0.166	−0.374	−0.232	0.038	1.000	0.313	−0.420	−0.515**
G	−0.158	−0.164	−0.118	−0.155	0.045	0.211	0.245	0.313	1.00	−0.231	−0.231
QA	−0.111	0.626**	0.179	0.471	0.366	0.366	0.189	−0.420	−0.231	1.000	0.813**
QT	−0.136	0.517**	0.085	0.379	0.382	0.383	0.195	−0.515**	−0.231	0.813**	1.000

Note: TS – Tensile strength; FAB – Firmness after first bite; C – Chewiness; A – Adhesiveness; G – Graininess; QA – Quality of Appearance; QF – Quality of Flavour; QT – Quality of texture.

*Significant at p < 0.05 and **strong positive or negative correlation with r > 0.5.