External relative to internal attentional focus enhances motor performance and learning in visually impaired individuals

Abstract

Background: Research has demonstrated the advantages of an external relative to internal focus of attention for enhancing motor performance and learning across diverse tasks, contexts and populations. However, research has yet to examine whether this finding holds true for individuals who have a major visual impairment in discrete and locomotion-based continuous motor tasks.

Methods: In experiment 1, twenty-four visually impaired participants were asked to kick a soccer ball with their dominant foot to a target 7 meters away. Participants performed 10 trials within an internal focus (concentration on inside of the foot), external focus (concentration on the ball), and control (no focus instructions) conditions, in a counterbalanced order. In experiment 2, thirty-nine visually impaired adults were asked to ride a rehabilitation Pedalo for a distance of 7 meters. Participants were randomly assigned to either an internal focus (focus on the feet), external focus (focus on the platform), or control (no focus instructions) group. Retention and transfer tests were conducted on day 2.

Results: An external focus resulted in more accurate kicks and faster pedalo movement times compared to an internal focus.

Conclusions: These findings indicate that visual information does not mediate external focus benefits for motor performance and learning.

Implications for Rehabilitation

• Practitioners should use instructions that encourage visually impaired individuals who are going through rehabilitation to adopt an appropriate focus of attention for enhancing motor performance and learning of discrete or locomotion-based motor skills.

• Instructions that foster an external focus, relative to an internal focus, enhances performance of both discrete and continuous motor skills in individuals with visual impairment.

Keywords:

• Focus of attention
• soccer
• balance
• visual impairment
• performance
• learning

Disclosure statement

The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Note

Notes

1 An alternative analysis of data was conducted when all data were logarithmically transformed and the distribution of data was normalized [42]. The results from the normalized data was the same as the non-parametric results. Specifically, the results of a one-way ANOVA with repeated measurements on all focus conditions revealed that the main effect of focus conditions was significant, F(2, 46) = 12.160, p < 0.001, η_ρ² = 0.346. Post-hoc analysis showed that the kicking accuracy in the external focus condition (M = 0.85 ± 0.14) was significantly higher than in the internal focus condition (M = 0.65 ± 0.24, p < 0.001, d = 0.988). Also, performance of control condition (M = 0.79 ± 0.17) was significantly better than the internal focus condition (p = 0.014, d = 0.682). There was no significant difference between the control and external focus conditions (p = 0.245, d = 0.398).

Additional information

Funding

This study was financially supported by Czech Science Foundation under grant GAČR 18-16130S.