ABSTRACT
Democratic governance is premised on the belief that all citizens are empowered to shape the society in which they live. Over generations, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have maintained that Australian democratic practice does not live up to this ideal, contending that the state's legal and political framework does not empower them with the capacity to have their voices heard and their interests considered in the processes of government. However, non-Indigenous Australians remain suspicious of Indigenous-specific political and legal mechanisms designed to rectify this structural fault. In this paper, I argue that this suspicion – and Australia's governance framework more broadly – arises from a particular conception of democratic theory that marginalises Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoplehood. If, as the Uluru Statement from the Heart calls for, Australia's political institutions are to be rebuilt so as to empower Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples ‘to take a rightful place in [their] own country’, that conception of democratic theory must first be revealed and re-centred. Multinational federalism offers one path towards a more equitable future.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Harry Hobbs is a Lecturer in the Faulty of Law, University of Technology Sydney, and a PhD Candidate in the Faculty of Law, University of New South Wales. Thanks to Ulf Mörkenstam, Paul Patton, Stephen Young, Bradley Gooding, and participants at the Australasian Society of Legal Philosophy, Auckland, 14–16 July 2017, and the Political Theory workshop at Stockholm University, 5 October 2017, for helpful comments on earlier drafts.
Notes
17 Commonwealth Electoral Act 1962 (Cth) s. 2. See Goot (Citation2006) pp 518–532 for complexities.
27 Kymlicka (Citation2011) p 188. See UNDRIP arts 6, 8(1)-(2), 9, 33, 36(1).
28 See for example Native Title Act 1993 (Cth).
29 See for example Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984 (Cth).
32 Rowe v Electoral Commissioner (Citation2010) 243 CLR 1 at 112 [344] (Crennan J).
33 McKinlay v Commonwealth (Citation1975) 135 CLR 1, 24 (Barwick CJ).
36 Māori Representation Act 1867 (NZ).
37 Electoral Act 1993 (NZ) s 45.
40 UNGA, 61st sess, 107th plen mtg, UN Doc A/61/PV.107 (13 September Citation2007) p 11 (Hill, Australia).
41 UNGA, 61st sess, 107th plen mtg, UN Doc A/61/PV.107 (13 September Citation2007) p 13 (McNee, Canada).
42 UNGA, 61st sess, 107th plen mtg, UN Doc A/61/PV.107 (13 September Citation2007) p 14 (Banks, New Zealand).
45 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission Act 1989 (Cth) s 7.
46 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 11 April 1989, p 1328 (John Howard).
47 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, Senate, 18 August 1989, p 395 (Jim Short); Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, Senate, 30 August 1989, p 641 (Florence Bjelke-Petersen); 11 April 1989, p 1341 (Chris Miles) (a ‘black power parliament’).
48 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, Senate, 17 October 1989, p 2014 (Jim Short) (discussing the Preamble to the Bill).
49 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission Amendment Act 2005 (Cth).
50 ABC Radio National (2004).
56 Moreton-Robinson (Citation2017). Even multiculturalism, which offers public and private space for minority groups to maintain and develop their culture, heritage and traditions, remains an integrative policy that ignores aspirations for autonomy: Kane (Citation1997) p 541.
58 On persistent electoral minorities and democratic design see Hobbs (Citation2017) p 341.
60 Nicholas (2014) p 111.
63 As Sákéj Youngblood Henderson explains, undifferentiated citizenship rights bestowed by the settler state, ‘offer[]only the silence and anguish of minority interest group status’: Henderson (Citation2002) p 433.
65 Australian Electoral Commission (Citation2016) pp 18, 45.
69 Pildes (Citation2004) p 2 (describing, not endorsing this account).
71 Nootens (2008) p 277. An electoral loss may refer to a defeat on the floor of either House of Parliament, but it can also refer to a recurrent failure to have issues of considerable importance even debated in Parliament.
72 Human Rights Act 2004 (ACT); Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic).
74 The prohibition of racial discrimination was central to the decision in Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1.
78 Official Record of the Proceedings and Debates of the Australasian Federation Conference, Melbourne, 10 February 1890, 20.
88 Constitution of Australia, s. 128; Bistricic v Rokov (Citation1976) 135 CLR 552, at 566 (Murphy J); Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (Citation1992) 177 CLR 106, at 138 (Mason CJ); Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times Ltd (Citation1994) 182 CLR 104, at 171 (Deane J); McGinty v Western Australia (Citation1996) 186 CLR 140, at 230 (McHugh J).
96 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, Citation1789, art 6.
125 UNDRIP arts 8, 10–15, 25–26. See further Kalkaringi (Citation1998).
126 Joint Standing Committee on Electoral Matters (Citation2017) p 39, Recommendation 3; Electoral Amendment (Banning Foreign Donations) Bill 2017.
128 Lov om Sametinget og andre samiske rettsforhold (1987)
134 The Case of the Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v Nicaragua, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (Ser. C) No. 79 (Judgment on merits and reparations of 31 August 2001).
136 Act on Greenland Self-Government (Act No. 473, 2009) Ch 2, Schedule II.
137 Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 (Cth) s 23. Prescribed Bodies Corporate undertake similar tasks: Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) s 55.
139 Native Title (Prescribed Bodies Corporate) Regulations 1999 (Cth) reg 6.
140 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission Act 1989 (Cth) s 7(1) (emphasis added).
144 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission Act (No. 3) 1993 (Cth) Part 31 and Schedule 4.
145 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 24 August 1988, p 252 (Gerry Hand); Tickner (Citation2001) p 48; O’Donoghue (Citation1994) p 12.
148 See Maa-nulth First Nations Final Agreement (Citation2008) art 1.8.1.
151 Though note that First Nations jurisdiction is more limited than provincial jurisdiction.
152 A similar convention exists in the UK with regard Scotland: Sewel Convention. See: United Kingdom, Parliamentary Debates, House of Lords, 21 July 1998, vol 592, col 791 (Lord Sewel).
155 New Zealand: Maori Representation Act 1867 (NZ); Colombia: Constitution of Colombia, 6 July 1991, Arts 171, 176; Venezuela: Bolivarian Constitution of Venezuela, 20 December 1999, Art 125.
161 Reference re Supreme Court Act, ss 5 and 6 [2014] SCC 21
162 Three are selected from Ontario, two from the Western Provinces, and one from the Atlantic Provinces.
163 Special Act of 6 January 1989 on the Constitutional Court, arts 31 and 34.4
166 Senate Select Committee on the Administration of Aboriginal Affairs (Citation1989).
168 Hannaford, Huggins and Collins (Citation2003a) p 36. This is, of course, reflective of the fact that Indigenous peoples are distinguishable from other interest or lobby groups.
170 Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation (Citation1996) Recommendation 18.
171 Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation (Citation1996) p 45. The 2003 Hannaford Review recommended the ATSIC Chair have observer status at COAG meetings for all discussions on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs: Hannaford, Huggins and Collins (Citation2003b) Recommendation 44.
172 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (Citation1995) Recommendation 26.
173 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (Citation1995) para [4.27].
174 Referendum Council (Citation2017) Recommendation 1. Pearson (Citation2014); Cape York Institute (Citation2014). The body bears some similarities to an Indigenous Review Council proposed by John Chesterman: Chesterman (Citation2008) p 421.
178 Referendum Council (Citation2017) p i (emphasis in original).
181 New Zealand Royal Commission on Electoral Systems (Citation1986) p 87.
185 New Zealand, Royal Commission on Electoral Systems (Citation1986) p 87.
195 For an approach premised on treaty federalism see Hobbs (Citation2018) p 176.
196 Tully (Citation2001) p 10 citing Reference re Secession of Quebec [1998] 2 SCR 217 at [66].
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