The use of exergetic indicators in the food industry – A review

Figures & data

Figure 1. Left: Global food losses in relation to the total global food production. Right: Food processing losses in relation to the total global food losses. The values used for the estimations were adapted from the report by Gustavsson et al. (2011).

Figure 2. (a) Number of published papers related to ExA applied in the food industry. The results are obtained after the comparison of 134 publications to the best of authors’ knowledge. (b) Total number of ExA publications are shown related to the chemical industry (as shown by Luis, 2013) and the food industry.

Figure 3. Publications of ExA applied to the food industry, which show (a) the main type of processes researched, and (b) the main drying technologies researched. The results are obtained after the comparison of 134 publications to the best of authors’ knowledge.

Figure 4. (a) Chemical exergy of 1 kg of moist air as a function of its moisture content at a constant environmental moisture content (0.008 kg water/kg dry air) and at different environmental temperatures. (b) Contour plot of the total exergy of 1 kg of moist air as a function of its moisture content (kg water/kg dry air) and its temperature (K) at constant environmental moisture content (0.008 kg water/kg dry air) and at constant environmental temperature (298 K).

Table 1. Indicative list of forms of exergy and formulas used for their calculation.

Form of exergy	Formulas
Total exergy of a stream
Physical exergy of a stream
Thermal exergy of a stream
Pressure exergy of an incompressible liquid stream
Pressure exergy of an gaseous stream
Chemical exergy of a stream
Mixing exergy

Figure 5. Main exergetic indicators used in industrial food processes and food chains. The results are obtained after the comparison of 134 publications to the best of authors’ knowledge.

Table 2. Indicative but not exhaustive list with various exergetic indicators found in literature after the comparison of 134 publications to the best of authors’ knowledge.

Indicator	Formulae	References
Exergetic efficiency		Evaporation of tomato paste (Sogut et al., 2010), milk and bread processing (Ho et al., 1986), fish drying (Tiwari et al., 2009), extrusion of fish feed (Boyar et al., 2012), drying of rice (Pandey et al., 2012), carrot cubes (Nazghelichi et al., 2010), cereal grains (Amantéa et al., 2013), red pepper (Akpinar, 2004), mulberry (Akbulut and Durmuş, 2010), coroba slices (Corzo et al., 2008a, 2008b), corn (Syahrul et al., 2003; Fortes et al., 2009; Bolaji, 2011), wheat (Fortes, 2004; Fortes and Ferreira, 2004; Inaba, 2007; Assari et al., 2013), carrot (Aghbashlo et al., 2009), pistachio (Midilli and Kucuk, 2003), coffee (Hernández-Díaz et al., 2013; Fissore et al., 2014), chili (Sami et al., 2011), olive leaves (Celma and Cuadros, 2009; Erbay and Icier, 2009a, 2011), beef (Liu et al., 2008), mint leaves (Colak et al., 2008; Akpinar, 2010a; Boulemtafes-Boukadoum and Benzaoui, 2011), parsley leaves (Akpinar, 2011), jackfruit leather (Chowdhury et al., 2011), multilayer porous media (Prommas et al., 2010), solar greenhouse drying (Ozgener and Ozgener, 2009a), solar air drying (Tyagi et al., 2009), steam production (Saidur et al., 2010), co-generation in sugar production (Kamate and Gangavati, 2009), ethanol production (Palacios-Bereche et al., 2013), milling of cereals (Akinoso et al., 2013), pasta (Ozgener and Ozgener, 2006; Ozgener, 2007; Ozgener and Ozgener, 2009b), cheese powder (Erbay et al., 2014), ethanol production from banana and its residues (Velásquez-Arredondo et al., 2010)
Exergy losses		Drying of potato (Akpinar et al., 2005; Aghbashlo et al., 2008), pumpkin (Akpinar et al., 2006), apple (Akpinar, 2005b), apricot (Akpinar and Sarsilmaz, 2004), strawberry (Akpinar, 2007), pomegranate (Motevali and Minaei, 2012), wheat (Syahrul et al., 2002), multilayer porous media (Prommas et al., 2010), non-hygroscopic porous media (Prommas et al., 2012), eggplant (Akpinar, 2005a), plants (Gungor et al., 2011c)
Improvement potential		Drying of broccoli (Colak et al., 2010; Icier et al., 2010), pasta (Colak et al., 2013), cheese powder (Erbay and Koca, 2012a), plums (Hepbasli et al., 2010a, 2010b), green olives (Colak and Hepbasli, 2007), fruits and vegetables (Gungor et al., 2011a, 2011b), laurel leaves (Kuzgunkaya and Hepbasli, 2007), tinning of fish (Quijera et al., 2013)
Entropy generation		Pasteurization and concentration of orange juice (Balkan et al., 2005; Waheed et al., 2008), spray drying of milk powder (Jin and Chen, 2011), spray drying microencapsulation of fish oil (Aghbashlo et al., 2012, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c), waste heat utilization for frying potato (Aneke et al., 2012), solar drying of fruits and vegetables (Lamnatou et al., 2012)^2
Exergy destruction ratio		Drying of soybeans (Ranjbaran and Zare, 2013), plums (Erbay and Hepbasli, 2013), olive leaves (Erbay et al., 2010), cheese powder spray drying (Erbay and Koca, 2012a), sugar production (Bapat et al., 2013)
Sustainability index		Fruits and vegetables cultivation (Hepbasli, 2011), drying of laurel (Erbay and Hepbasli, 2014), cheese powder spray drying (Erbay and Koca, 2012b)
Cumulative exergy consumption		Sugar production (Raghu Ram and Banerjee, 2003; Moya et al., 2013), fish feed formulation (Draganovic et al., 2013), recycling of used cooking oil (Talens Peiró et al., 2008; Talens Peiró et al., 2010), general agricultural production (Wall, 1990; Hoang and Rao, 2010), vegetable oil production (Özilgen and Sorgüven, 2011)
Cumulative exergy losses		Sugar production (Raghu Ram and Banerjee, 2003), societal chains that include the agricultural sector (Wall, 1990; Gong and Wall, 1997).
Exergetic factor		Drying of plums (Hepbasli et al., 2010), olive leaves (Erbay et al., 2010), laurel (Erbay and Hepbasli, 2014), cheese powder spray drying (Erbay and Koca, 2012b)
Specific exergy destruction		General chilling process (Ducoulombier et al., 2007)
Relative irreversibility		Drying of olive leaves (Erbay et al., 2010), drying of laurel (Erbay and Hepbasli, 2014), cheese powder spray drying (Erbay and Koca, 2012b)
Lack of productivity		Cheese powder spray drying (Erbay and Koca, 2012b)
Exergetic renewability		Sugar production (Bapat et al., 2013)^3 (Moya et al., 2013)^4, fruits and vegetables cultivation (Hepbasli, 2011)
Renewability performance indicator		Ethanol production from banana and its residues (Velásquez-Arredondo et al., 2010), production of sugar and ethanol (Pellegrini and de Oliveira Junior, 2011)
Eco-exergy		Fish feed formulation (Draganovic et al., 2013)

¹ Also known as Cumulative degree of perfection and its use is demonstrated in the production of yoghurt (Sorgüven and Özilgen, 2012) and vegetable oil (Özilgen and Sorgüven, 2011).

² Use of the entropy generation number, N_s, which is calculated based on the ratio of the thermal energy of the product over the solar energy absorbed, and it indicates the entropy produced during the conversion of solar energy to thermal energy.

³ Defined as exergy renewability ratio:

⁴ The non-renewable fraction can also be calculated as:

Figure 6. Grassmann diagrams of two different food processes that have the same exergetic efficiency.

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