Mycotoxin risk management in maize gluten meal

Figures & data

Figure 1. Maize production a) and yields b) of the world, U.S., China and Brazil from 1961 to 2020 (FAOSTAT 2021).

Figure 2. Maize wet milling process and MGM.

a) wet milling process, b) dry MGM, c) wet MGM. a) adapted from Blasi et al. (2001); b) and c) from Ribeiro et al. (2019) under CC BY 4.0.

Table 1. Mycotoxin prevalence in maize in different regions.

Continent	Mycotoxin	Year	Region	Number of samples	Positive samples (%)	Average of positives (ppb)	Median (ppb)	Maximum (ppb)	References
America	FBs	2020	North America	465	70	2434	1089	45548	BIOMIN (2020)
			South & Central America	3577	84	2235	1390	56000
		2019	North America	534	78	2839	892	72950	BIOMIN (2019)
			South & Central America	3304	90	3177	1700	170300
		2014-2017	North America	945	61	3169	900	154000	Munkvold et al. (2019)
		2009-2011	North America	466	39	1357	490.0	22900	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			South America	807	92	3226	2008.0	53700
		Range	America	–	39-92	1357-3226	490-2008	22900-170300	–
	DON	2020	North America	468	72	808	557	6003	BIOMIN (2020)
			South & Central America	2568	49	473	350	6330
		2019	North America	448	85	1011	573	9250	BIOMIN (2019)
			South & Central America	2808	56	499	340	5600
		2014-2017	North America	893	66	814	460	24792	Munkvold et al. (2019)
		2009-2011	North America	390	79	1085	565.0	24900	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			South America	322	17	214	172.0	939
		Range	America	–	17-85	214-1085	172-573	939-24900	–
	ZEN	2020	North America	471	40	352	139	13351	BIOMIN (2020)
			South & Central America	3124	28	178	60	4948
		2019	North America	534	55	285	145	4154	BIOMIN (2019)
			South & Central America	3472	27	124	53	2487
		2014-2017	North America	958	27	246	100	13700	Munkvold et al. (2019)
		2009-2011	North America	395	29	251	86.4	4787	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			South America	321	43	176	87.1	1800
		Range	America	–	27-55	124-352	53-145	1800-13700	–
	AFs	2020	North America	471	6	48	6	482	BIOMIN (2020)
			South & Central America	3839	12	8	4	179
		2019	North America	524	4	132	5	1327	BIOMIN (2019)
			South & Central America	4091	21	10	4	1264
		2014-2017	North America	952	7	39	9	980	Munkvold et al. (2019)
		2009-2011	North America	375	26	67	10.1	920	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			South America	809	25	7	1.8	273
		Range	America	–	4-26	7-132	1.8-10	179-1327	–
	OTA	2020	North America	471	1	67	3	196	BIOMIN (2020)
			South & Central America	518	8	5	4	26
		2019	North America	534	1	5	5	9	BIOMIN (2019)
			South & Central America	462	2	10	4	30
		2014-2017	North America	912	2	25	3	200	Munkvold et al. (2019)
		2009-2011	North America	126	10	5	2.3	18	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			South America	147	12	133	71.3	355
		Range	America	–	1-12	5-133	2.3-71	9-355	–
	T-2	2020	North America	447	2	85	70	220	BIOMIN (2020)
			South & Central America	1112	13	40	28	321
		2019	North America	426	4	135	88	751	BIOMIN (2019)
			South & Central America	1101	10	52	30	707
		2014-2017	North America	855	3	48	19	200	Munkvold et al. (2019)
		Range	America	–	2-13	40-135	19-88	200-751	–
Europe	FBs	2020	Europe	733	71	1153	555	13902	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Europe	568	73	1475	397	297300	BIOMIN (2019)
		2009-2011	Central Europe	30	60	2180	684.0	7680	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			Southern Europe	48	90	2271	1407.0	11050
		Range	Europe	–	60-90	1153-2271	397-1407	7680-297300	–
	DON	2020	Europe	943	70	808	469	8300	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Europe	705	83	726	355	8600	BIOMIN (2019)
		2009-2011	Central Europe	535	72	1421	716.0	26121	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			Southern Europe	59	47	985	523.0	3851
		Range	Europe	–	47-83	726-1421	355-716	3851-26121	–
	ZEN	2020	Europe	805	55	171	50	9455	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Europe	652	58	94	45	1834	BIOMIN (2019)
		2009-2011	Central Europe	379	39	123	78.5	849	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			Southern Europe	52	21	290	166.0	1546
		Range	Europe	–	21-58	94-290	45-166	849-9455	–
	AFs	2020	Europe	449	10	12	4	89	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Europe	427	9	8	4	54	BIOMIN (2019)
		2009-2011	Central Europe	16	31	2	1.5	3	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			Southern Europe	42	36	9	4.0	44	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
		Range	Europe	–	9-36	2-12	1.5-4	3-89	–
	OTA	2020	Europe	438	11	7	3	52	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Europe	416	16	20	3	412	BIOMIN (2019)
		2009-2011	Central Europe	21	10	2	2.4	3	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			Southern Europe	31	29	15	9.3	46
		Range	Europe	–	11-29	2-20	2.4-9.3	3-412	–
	T-2	2020	Europe	494	39	57	20	1387	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Europe	439	40	67	16	4134	BIOMIN (2019)
		Range	Europe	–	39-40	57-67	16-20	1387-4134	–
Asia	FBs	2020	Asia	983	96	2320	1078	30872	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Asia	719	100	2083	1010	40090	BIOMIN (2019)
		2009-2011	North Asia	443	75	2816	1518.5	23499	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			South-East Asia	326	83	1568	1033.0	19289
			South Asia	108	74	845	541.0	6196
		Range	Asia	–	74-100	845-2816	541-1518	6196-40090	–
	DON	2020	Asia	985	80	669	520	5978	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Asia	719	88	499	359	8419	BIOMIN (2019)
		2009-2011	North Asia	477	92	1154	640.0	15073	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			South-East Asia	218	45	307	182.0	4805
			South Asia	106	22	278	190.0	1150
		Range	Asia	–	22-92	278-1154	182-640	1150-15073	–
	ZEN	2020	Asia	983	68	266	43	11786	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Asia	718	75	78	32	2233	BIOMIN (2019)
		2009-2011	North Asia	470	67	437	176.0	7446	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			South-East Asia	319	20	288	97.0	2601
			South Asia	108	9	269	78.5	1099
		Range	Asia	–	9-75	78-437	32-437	1099-11786	–
	AFs	2020	Asia	984	22	81	17	2495	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Asia	717	31	43	10	773	BIOMIN (2019)
		2009-2011	North Asia	447	12	114	7.0	4687	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			South-East Asia	330	71	146	38.0	6105
			South Asia	108	82	240	96.0	2230
		Range	Asia	–	12-82	43-240	7-96	773-6105	–
	OTA	2020	Asia	640	47	6	2	571	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Asia	448	2	7	3	28	BIOMIN (2019)
		2009-2011	North Asia	420	10	4	1.4	19	Rodrigues and Naehrer (2012)
			South-East Asia	218	12	9	3.0	80
			South Asia	107	27	31	7.4	400
		Range	Asia	–	2-47	4-31	1.4-7.4	19-571	–
	T-2	2020	Asia	639	9	25	18	167	BIOMIN (2020)
		2019	Asia	448	2	19	17	49	BIOMIN (2019)
		Range	Asia	–	2-9	19-25	17-18	49-167	–
Middle East & Africa	FBs	2020	Middle East & North Africa	20	95	1418	508	8586	BIOMIN (2020)
			Africa (without North Africa)	338	65	596	221	9481
		2019	Middle East & North Africa	30	47	1440	848	6559	BIOMIN (2019)
			Africa (without North Africa)	376	78	741	244	14346
		2006-2017	Africa (without South Africa)	79	92.4	–	1371	10018	Gruber-Dorninger, Jenkins, and Schatzmayr (2018)
			South Africa	281	80.1	–	177	16932
		Range	Middle East & Africa	–	47-95	596-1440	177-1371	6559-16932	–
	DON	2020	Middle East & North Africa	20	75	260	79	1633	BIOMIN (2020)
			Africa (without North Africa)	338	93	730	412	5557
		2019	Middle East & North Africa	30	87	330	328	670	BIOMIN (2019)
			Africa (without North Africa)	376	83	664	305	10607
		2006-2017	Africa (without South Africa)	79	41.8	–	0	4974	Gruber-Dorninger, Jenkins, and Schatzmayr (2018)
			South Africa	314	80.6	–	290	9176
		Range	Middle East & Africa	–	42-93	260-730	79-412	670-10607	–
	ZEN	2020	Middle East & North Africa	20	45	80	32	418	BIOMIN (2020)
			Africa (without North Africa)	338	54	62	25	2198
		2019	Middle East & North Africa	30	67	39	36	137	BIOMIN (2019)
			Africa (without North Africa)	376	56	67	24	1344
		2006-2017	Africa (without South Africa)	79	41.8	–	0	858	Gruber-Dorninger, Jenkins, and Schatzmayr (2018)
			South Africa	308	47.1	–	0	6276
		Range	Middle East & Africa	–	42-67	39-80	24-36	137-6276	–
	AFs	2020	Middle East & North Africa	18	17	2	2	2	BIOMIN (2020)
			Africa (without North Africa)	338	2	191	7	1032
		2019	Middle East & North Africa	30	37	2	1	5	BIOMIN (2019)
			Africa (without North Africa)	376	7	16	6	64
		2006-2017	Africa (without South Africa)	79	49.4	–	0	379	Gruber-Dorninger, Jenkins, and Schatzmayr (2018)
			South Africa	282	9.6	–	0	14
		Range	Middle East & Africa	–	2-49	2-191	1-7	2-1032	–
	OTA	2020	Middle East & North Africa	18	22	2	2	3	BIOMIN (2020)
			Africa (without North Africa)	338	1	3	2	5
		2019	Middle East & North Africa	30	33	4	3	12	BIOMIN (2019)
			Africa (without North Africa)	375	1	15	15	24
		2006-2017	Africa (without South Africa)	49	22.5	–	0	694	Gruber-Dorninger, Jenkins, and Schatzmayr (2018)
			South Africa	269	7.4	–	0	95
		Range	Middle East & Africa	–	1-33	2-15	2-15	3-694	–
	T-2	2020	Middle East & North Africa	17	35	12	9	30	BIOMIN (2020)
			Africa (without North Africa)	338	0	–	–	0
		2019	Middle East & North Africa	29	38	22	14	60	BIOMIN (2019)
			Africa (without North Africa)	375	2	10	10	10
		2006-2017	Africa (without South Africa)	79	5.1	–	0	61	Gruber-Dorninger, Jenkins, and Schatzmayr (2018)
			South Africa	273	0.7	–	0	80
		Range	Middle East & Africa	–	0-38	10-22	9-14	0-80	–

-: not available

Table 2. Fate of mycotoxins during wet milling.

Mycotoxin	Mycotoxin concentration (µg/kg)						Mycotoxin distribution rate (%)					Scale	Analysis	Reference
	Maize	^aSoluble	Fiber	Germ	Gluten	Starch	Soluble	Fiber	Germ	Gluten	Starch
AFs	487*	263	^b56.4		124	42.3	54.4	11.6		25.3	8.70	Lab	HPLC	Aly (2002)
	–	–	–	–	–	–	42.0	30.0	10.0	17.0	1.00	–	–	Yahl et al. (1971)
	–	–	–	–	–	–	50.0	28.0	11.0	11.0	0.20	–	–	Romer (1984)
AFB1	120	610	340	140	140	2.20	39.5	38.0	6.00	13.0	1.00	Lab	TLC	Bennett and Anderson (1978)
	638*	2450	1600	798	768	9.00	41.5	30.0	10.0	17.0	1.00
	0.07	0.70 ± 1.00	0.20 ± 0.30	0.20 ± 0.30	0.20 ± 0.30	ND	^c65.0		19.9	15.1	Nd	Factory	LC-MS	Park et al. (2018)
FB1	648	4595 ± 3263	820 ± 633	1043 ± 817	1416 ± 818	6.80 ± 5.70	75.1		11.7	12.7	0.50	Factory	LC-MS	Park et al. (2018)
FB2	153	300 ± 220	277 ± 245	512 ± 498	825 ± 425	3.00 ± 4.60	43.5		24.3	31.3	0.90	Factory	LC-MS	Park et al. (2018)
ZEN	900	3900	2700	1700	6800	ND	20.4	19.0	9.10	51.5	ND	Lab	TLC	Bennett and Anderson (1978)
	4100	9100	3600	3600	13400	ND	26.3	14.7	10.2	48.8	ND
	9400	10600	6800	7500	20400	ND	17.4	15.4	10.9	56.3	ND
	69.0	23.8 ± 22.6	143 ± 141	299 ± 245	330 ± 238	7.90 ± 9.20	33.1		31.4	27.7	7.80	Factory	LC-MS	Park et al. (2018)
	–	–	–	–	–	–	26.0	18.0	11.0	45.0	ND	–	–	Romer (1984)
DON	327	7418 ± 4409	530 ± 313	359 ± 217	506 ± 211	2.90 ± 7.00	82.6		8.00	9.00	0.40	Factory	LC-MS	Park et al. (2018)
T-2	502*	276	385	975	440	33.0	69.8	9.00	10.6	7.50	3.10	Lab	GC-FID	Collins and Rosen (1981)
	2250*	660	1380	3850	1380	198	66.9	8.80	12.4	6.30	5.60
	8700*	1790	7630	14200	11300	652	64.0	10.5	8.30	13.3	3.90
	2.91	9.90 ± 8.10	3.20 ± 5.00	6.90 ± 7.60	12.2 ± 10.3	0.20 ± 0.30	55.2		17.3	24.2	3.30	Factory	LC-MS	Park et al. (2018)
HT-2	5.52	33.2 ± 18.3	3.90 ± 4.40	1.00 ± 2.50	15.4 ± 10.3	ND	82.5		1.40	16.1	ND	Factory	LC-MS	Park et al. (2018)
OTA	0.09	0.80 ± 0.40	0.20 ± 0.30	0.20 ± 0.20	0.50 ± 0.40	0.10 ± 0.10	25.0		11.7	30.6	32.7	Factory	LC-MS	Park et al. (2018)

^a Soluble consists of steeping water and processing water.

^b Combination data for fiber and germ fractions.

^c Combination data for soluble and fiber fractions.

* Contaminated maize with relative high levels of toxins obtained by artificial inoculation.

^–Not available.

ND: not detected.

Table 3. Mycotoxin decontamination potential of LAB in maize and maize products and related mechanisms.

Mechanism	Source	Strain	Commodities	Temperature (°C)	Time (d)	Target Mycotoxin	Decontamination Rate (%)	Reference
Biodegradation	Clover	Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Streptococcus lactis	Maize Meal	25	3	ZEN	68	Mokoena, Chelule, and Gqaleni (2005)
					4	FB1	74
	Dairy and plant	L. brevis L. casei L. plantarum L. jugurti	Maize	25	1	ZEN	47-50	Niderkorn et al. (2007)
						FB2	34
	Ogi	L. acidophilus L. brevis L. casei L. delbruekii L. plantarum	Maize grain	37	5	AFB1	31-46	Oluwafemi et al. (2010)
		Mix LAB species	Maize-based product	35–45	4	Citrinin and ZEN	˂99	Okeke et al. (2015)
	USDA	L. casei L. fermentum L. plantarum P. pentosaceus	Maize porridges	30	1	FB1	17-20	Nyamete, Mourice, et al. (2016)
	NA	L. plantarum CECT 749 CFS	Maize kernels	37	7	FB1	90.6	Nazareth et al. (2020)
					25-40	AFB1	97.5-100
		L. casei L. fermentum L. plantarum P. pentosaceus	Tanzania maize-based gruel	30	1	AFB1	45-55	Nyamete, Bennink, et al. (2016)
Binding	Ogi	L. acidophilus L. brevis L. casei	Maize and maize products	37	3	AFS	48-54	Oluwafemi and Da-Silva (2009)
	sour grain mash	L. delbruekii L. plantarum	Ogi and mahewu	30	6	FB1	75-100	Dawlal et al. (2017)
						FB2	63-71
	Yoba	L.rhamnosus yoba2012	ground maize	1	30	AFB1	83	Wacoo et al. (2019)
Binding and Biodegradation	NA	L. buchneri L. reuteri L. plantarum L. fermentum	Maize grain	20 ± 2	48	OTA	80	Zielińska and Fabiszewska (2017)
NA	NA	LAB starter culture S. cerevesiae	Maize meal and mahewu	22-25	2–4	AFB1, FB1 and ZEN	100	Chelule et al. (2010)

NA = Information not available.

Figure 3. Risk management strategy for mycotoxins in MGM from the field to the end-product.

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