Exercisable Learning-Theory and Evidence-Based Andragogy for Training Effectiveness using XR (ELEVATE-XR): Elevating the ROI of Immersive Technologies

Figures & data

Table 1. Implications of learning theories to XR Andragogy.

Learning theory	Implications to XR andragogy
Behaviorism Theory	Structure scenarios to support observing, imitating, and embodying modeled correct behavioral responses, as well as discovery and invention of new meaningful behaviors that enhance performance; arrange scenarios such that difficulty level primarily elicits positive reinforcement, and provide feedback to motivate desired performance outcomes
Cognitive Load Theory	Consider level of stress, complexity, assistance, feedback, and fidelity (SCAFFolding) that is appropriate given proficiency of the learner
Component Display Theory	Involve all performance forms (remembering, using, generalizing) for all content types (facts, concepts, procedures, principles)
Conditions of Learning Theory	Ensure conditions of learning (gain attention, state objective, stimulate recall, trigger selective perception, foster semantic encoding, trigger a meaningful response, provide feedback, assess performance, foster generalization) are met across the hierarchy of learning
Embodied Learning Theory	Involve learners in realistically embodied behaviors that are highly integrated into task performance and avoid incidental forms of embodiment
Constructivist Theory	Involve learners in making connections based on authentic inquiry and active engagement with the environment to extend basic declarative knowledge and build schemas; provide feedback that results in revision and restructuring of previous knowledge constructs
Experiential Learning Theory	Engage learners in concrete, self-directed, hands-on learning experiences that support reflection, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation to construct knowledge based on experience
Situated Learning Theory	Connect content and context through situated experiences in authentic domain settings and situations

Table 2. XR Competency-based Learning Theory Framework.

	Proficiency Level
Learning Theory	Novice	Advanced Beginner	Competent	Proficient	Expert
Behaviorism Theory	Observe modeled correct behavioral responses; Provide repetition & in situ reinforcement	Guide & imitate modeled correct behavioral responses; Provide repetition & in situ reinforcement	Embody target behavioral responses; Provide repetition & in situ reinforcement	Discover new meaningful behaviors; Provide repetition & in situ reinforcement	Evaluate & create new meaningful behaviors; Provide repetition & post hoc reinforcement
Cognitive Load Theory	Provide simple, passive observation-based scenarios, minimal stress, orienting assistance, immediate outcome-based feedback	Provide guided yet challenging hands-on scenarios, minimal contextually relevant stressors, relevance assistance, immediate elaborative feedback	Provide relative autonomy, authentically complex scenarios, contextually-relevant stressors that don’t overtax learner, facilitative feedback	Provide autonomy with limited assistance, high complexity real-life scenarios, high frequency / high fidelity stressors, strategic feedback	Provide autonomy with no assistance, high complexity real-life scenarios, novel, uncertain, high tempo stressors, strategic feedback
Component Display Theory	Focus on absorbing & remembering facts	Focus on understanding (e.g., assess situation, recognize consequence) concepts & procedures	Focus on applying concepts & procedures in self-guided scenarios	Focus on analyzing & generalizing facts, concepts, procedures, principles	Focus on evaluating & extending facts, concepts, procedures, principles
Conditions of Learning Theory	Orient & gain attention via “absorb” activities (e.g., state objective, discover, observe, recall), use Q&A appraisals	Trigger selective perception via “do” activities (e.g., assess, recognize, respond, encode), use Q&A appraisals	Trigger intuition via “elaboration” activities (e.g., examine, experiment, integrate), use practical skills appraisals	Foster generalization via “connect” activities (e.g., deconstruct, link, deduce, explain, predict), use peer rating appraisals	Foster generalization via “transfer” activities (e.g., synthesize, analyze, estimate, invent), use self-assessment appraisals
Embodied Learning Theory	Involve learners in observing realistically embodied behaviors that are associated with task performance	Involve learners in imitation of realistically embodied behaviors that are associated with task performance	Involve learners in executing embodied behaviors that are highly integrated into task performance	Involves learners in situation discrimination to foster discovery & selection of intuitive situational responses	Involves learners in situations that foster creation & generation of automaticity in situational responses
Constructivist Theory	Provide activities that help learners discover & recognize relevant information	Allow learners to choose meaningful hands-on activities to help them interpret & make sense of information	Engage learners in self-initiated activities to differentiate problem states & select appropriate actions	Immerse learners in real-life experiences & provide time & opportunity to goal-set & generalize knowledge	Immerse learners in real-life experiences that foster critiquing existing & generating new knowledge
Experiential Learning Theory	Support observation of concrete learning activities (i.e., recognizing & retrieving relevant information)	Support concrete learning activities (i.e., hands-on experiences that require applying declarative knowledge in context)	Foster reflective observation (i.e., intentional analysis of learning experience from multiple perspectives)	Foster abstract conceptualization (i.e., set goals to connect or form new ideas & concepts based on experience)	Foster active experimentation (i.e., form/test hypotheses); try out actions involving decision making & problem solving
Situated Learning Theory	Situate within conceptually focused scenarios; Reflect in situ by summarizing delta between desired & actual performance in a given situation	Situate within procedurally focused scenarios; Reflect in situ by explaining & exemplifying desired performance in a given situation	Situate within embodied, integrative learning experiences; Reflect in situ by relating & transferring knowledge to new situations	Situate within complex, discovery scenarios; Reflect in situ by focusing on situational dissonance (differences, contradictions, discrepancies)	Situate within complex, generative scenarios; Reflect in situ by fostering consideration of alternative hypotheses based on self-critique

Table 3. ELEVATE-XR Framework.

	Proficiency Level
	Novice	Advanced Beginner	Competent	Proficient	Expert
Over-Arching Learning Objective	Remember – Facts, Concepts, Procedures	Understand – Facts, Concepts, Procedures	Apply – Facts, Concepts, Procedures	Analyze – Facts, Concepts, Procedures	Evaluate/Create – Facts, Concepts, Procedures
Learning Activities	Define, Describe, Identify, Arrange, Label, List, Match, Name, Recall	Compare, Classify, Differentiate, Imitate, Explain, Translate, Interpret	Demonstrate, Employ, Examine, Execute, Illustrate, Manipulate, Use	Deconstruct, Differentiate, Deduce, Organize, Relate, Structure	Assess, Contrast, Critique, Invent, Hypothesize, Validate
Appropriate XR Form Factors	AR, Guided VR	AR, MR, Guided VR with Force Feedback	AR, MR, Free-Form VR with Haptics	AR, MR, Free-Form, Multimodal VR	AR, MR, Free-Form, Multimodal VR
Learning Loop	Situate > Orient > Observe > Reflect by Summarizing > Appraise via Remembering > Repeat	Situate > Guide > Organize > Reflect by Exemplifying > Appraise via Understanding > Repeat	Situate > Give Autonomy > Embody > Reflect by Relating > Appraise via Applying > Repeat	Situate > Goal-Orient > Generalize > Reflect by Contradicting > Appraise via Analyzing > Repeat	Situate > Challenge > Create > Reflect by Self Critiquing > Appraise via Evaluating > Repeat
SCAFFolding Scenario Elements	Stress: Low Complexity: Low Assistance: High Feedback: Immediate outcome-based (e.g., knowledge of correct response) Fidelity: Low	Stress: Low Complexity: Medium Assistance: Medium Feedback: Immediate elaborative (e.g., explanations) Fidelity: Low (Visual) with High (Force Feedback)	Stress: Medium Complexity: Medium Assistance: Medium Feedback: Immediate facilitative (e.g., advice, suggestion) Fidelity: Medium (Visual) with High (Haptics)	Stress: High Complexity: High Assistance: Low Feedback: Immediate strategy-based (e.g., in situ hints) Fidelity: High	Stress: High Complexity: High Assistance: None Feedback: Delayed strategy-based (e.g., point out inconsistencies) Fidelity: High

Figure 1. Example real-world robotic surgery task environment (Left) and example real-world maintenance task environment (Right).

Figure 2. Example guided VR task environment for Novice robotic surgery skills training.

Figure 3. Example guided VR task environment for Advanced Beginner robotic surgery skills training with force feedback.

Figure 4. Central Control Station (Left), Input/Output Drop Box (Center), and field device (Right).

Table 4. ELEVATE-XR machinery control monitoring system use case.

	Proficiency Level
	Novice	Advanced Beginner	Competent	Proficient	Expert
Over-Arching Learning Objective	Remember System/ subsystem component names and locations, and how subsystems are connected. Order of steps in procedure.	Understand What each system/ subsystem does and how they work together. Why procedural steps are performed in the specified order.	ApplyTroubleshoot simple/ common system faults involving individual subsystems.	Analyze Troubleshoot complex/ uncommon system faults involving multiple subsystems.	Evaluate/CreateTroubleshoot rarely encountered and novel system faults. Develop novel problem-solving solutions.
Learning Activities	Name and locate system/ subsystem components. Correctly list order of procedural steps.	Explain the functions of system/ subsystem components and how they work together. Explain why procedural steps are performed in specified order.	Demonstrate ability to identify simple/ common system faults involving individual subsystems, and determine causes of faults.	Demonstrate ability to diagnose complex/ uncommon system faults involving multiple subsystems, and determine causes of faults.	Demonstrate ability to diagnose rarely encountered and novel system faults, and determine causes of faults.
Example XR-Based Training Scenario	Use AR overlays to isolate/ identify individual IODB components and walk through procedural steps.	Use AR overlays to demonstrate relationships between IODB components and provide explanations for the ordering of procedures.	Use MR overlays to simulate IODB faults and support both visual and physical inspection of subsystem components and faults.	Use VR to simulate a wide range of complex and uncommon IODB system-level faults, that may require navigation to various parts of the ship and support realistic training and testing scenarios.	Use VR to simulate highly realistic, novel or rarely-encountered faults that may require additional information or navigation to various parts of the ship in “serious games”-like scenarios with exceptions to rules.
Example XR Scenario Elements	AR overlays focus user attention and provide assistance/ feedback in gaining declarative knowledge (e.g., multiple choice questions and answers) with no added stressors.	AR overlays to simulate network and power flow through components and provide assistance/ feedback in answering “why” questions regarding procedures with modest time pressure.	MR overlays simulate simple, common IODB faults and provide on-demand assistance and feedback in identifying and determining causes of faults with minimal consequences for errors.	End-to-end VR scenarios provide variations on faults involving multiple subsystems and failure types with minimal assistance and feedback, and significant consequences for errors.	Highly realistic simulations provide exposure to rarely encountered, complex scenarios requiring simulated communication and navigation features, and potentially catastrophic consequences for errors.