How Cannabis Users Obtain and Purchase Cannabis: A Comparison of Cannabis Users from European Countries with Different Cannabis Policies

Figures & data

Table 1. Overview of cannabis policy in the seven countries of this study.

Country	Cannabis schedule	Possession for personal use	Legal status-recreational use	Sentencing practice on cannabis supply 1 kg/10 kg
The Netherlands (NL)	Yes	Illegal, tolerated	Not an offense	Lowest / Lowest (#26 of 26) / (#25 of 25)
France (FR)	No	Illegal	Illegal	Low / Low (#25 of 26) / (#23 of 25)
Germany (GER)	No	Illegal	Not an offense	Medium / Medium (#12 of 26) / (#15 of 25)
Greece (GR)	Yes	Illegal	Illegal	Highest / second Highest (#1 of 26) / (#2 of 25)
Italy (IT)	Yes	Illegal	Not an offense	Medium–High / Medium–High (#7 of 26) / (#7 of 25)
Portugal (PT)	No	Administrative offense	Administrative offense	Medium–Low / Low (#17 of 26) / (#22 of 25)
United Kingdom (UK)	Yes	Illegal	Not an offense	Not available

Cannabis is included in a different schedule from heroin.

Based on the rank number (#) of countries in order of sentences from low to high (EMCDDA, 2017, p. 16).

Possession of small amount of cannabis for personal use considered a misdemeanor punishable by administrative sanctions (but not a fine).

The UK is not included in that EMCDDA report. However, the Sentencing Council (2012) of the UK has published guidelines on sentencing for the judiciary and criminal justice professionals. These guidelines refer -among others- to sentences concerning supply of 100 g and 6 kg of cannabis. Despite this useful document, comparisons cannot be made due to (i) the non-proportionality of comparable sizes (1 kg and 100 gr / and 10 kg with 6 kg, respectively) and (ii) differentiation in measures as EMCCDA report refers to expected sentences while the UK Sentencing Council refers to guidelines.

Table 2. Demographic characteristics, daily cannabis use, and accessibility.

Country (n)	Total (1225)	NL (218)	FR (230)	GER (191)	GR (86)	IT (217)	PT (93)	UK (190)	Chi^2/F (df)	p
Gender (%)									11.911(6)	.064
Male	67.5	71.6	70.9	60.7	70.9	71.0	63.4	62.1
Female	31.8	28.0	27.8	38.7	27.9	29.0	36.6	36.8
Other	0.7	0.5	1.3	0.5	1.2	0.0	0.0	1.1
Mean age (years) (SD)	27.0 (6.3)	27.5 (7.0)	27.5 (6.0)	24.6 (5.8)	27.2 (4.7)	27.7 (6.1)	27.0 (6.2)	27.0 (6.5)	5.654 (6)	.001
Household (%)									35.043 (12)	.001
Alone	23.8	26.6	31.3	19.9	34.9	21.2	21.5	14.2
Parents	32.6	29.8	23.5	39.8	30.2	35.0	31.2	38.4
Partner/Housemates	43.7	43.6	45.2	40.3	34.9	43.8	47.3	47.4
Employment (%)									54.624 (12)	.001
Student	36.0	37.6	29.6	49.7	39.5	35.5	40.9	24.7
Employed	59.7	54.6	63.9	45.5	54.7	63.1	58.1	73.7
Unemployed	4.3	7.8	6.5	4.7	5.8	1.4	1.1	1.6
Cannabis Use (%)
Daily use	32.7	36.7	41.3	17.8	22.1	35.0	21.5	40.0	43.442 (6)	.001
Accessibility (%)
Very easy	64.5	94.5	60.4	53.4	37.2	58.1	58.1	68.9
Fairly easy	27.8	4.1	29.6	35.6	46.5	31.3	37.6	27.4	142.024(12)	.001
Else	7.8	1.4	10.0	11.0	16.3	10.6	4.3	3.7

Table 3. Methods of cannabis acquisition and sources of supply, in %.

Acquisition (n)	NL (218)	FR (230)	GER (191)	GR (86)	IT (217)	PT (93)	UK (190)	Total (1225)	Chi^2 (df)	p
Bought myself	92.2	77.4	72.8	69.8	59.9	76.3	78.9	75.8	65.993(6)	<.001
Grow my own	7.3	5.7	5.8	1.2	4.6	6.5	4.2	5.3	5.772(6)	.449
Got it for free	26.1	14.8	23.0	12.8	23.5	38.7	14.2	21.2	36.171(6)	<.001
In exchange for sth	2.3	6.1	6.3	9.3	2.3	9.7	1.6	4.6	21.513(6)	<.001
Friend bought it	12.4	23.5	25.7	40.7	29.5	32.3	23.7	24.8	35.408(6)	<.001
Group buy	17.4	11.3	22.5	32.6	20.7	17.2	6.3	17.0	41.746(6)	<.001
Supply (n)	NL (201)	FR (178)	GER (139)	GR (60)	IT (130)	PT (71)	UK (150)	Total (929)	Chi^2 (df)	p
Street Dealer	10.4	53.9	25.2	25.0	33.1	39.4	43.3	32.6	96.181(6)	<.001
Home Dealer	8.0	19.1	39.6	55.0	48.5	36.6	35.3	30.1	104.804(6)	<.001
Friends	19.4	48.9	56.8	70.0	60.0	64.8	38.0	46.1	102.504(6)	<.001
Delivery Service	1.0	36.0	25.9	15.0	20.8	22.5	26.0	20.8	78.756(6)	<.001
Internet	0.5	0.6	7.9	0.0	0.2	0.2	0.8	2.6	21.883(6)	<.001
From Grower	3.5	5.1	14.4	8.3	1.0	0.4	1.7	7.5	18.283(6)	.006
Coffeeshops	90.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–

Table 4. Regression models: Methods of cannabis acquisition.

	Model 1: Bought myself (.203)				Model 2: Friend bought it (.102)				Model 3: Got it for free (.106)				Model 4: Group buy (.086)
Models (R^2)	B	SE	Exp(B)	p	B	SE	(Exp)B	p	B	SE	(Exp)B	p	B	SE	(Exp)B	p
Country
Netherlands (ref)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
France	–1.416	.310	.243	<.001	.885	.264	2.424	.001	–.675	.249	.509	.007	–.452	.278	.636	.104
Germany	–1.278	.311	.279	<.001	.718	.271	2.050	.008	–.358	.242	.699	.139	.179	.256	1.196	.485
Greece	–1.648	.359	.192	<.001	1.618	.309	5.043	<.001	–.987	.366	.373	.007	.801	.299	2.227	.007
Italy	–2.214	.301	.109	<.001	1.093	.260	2.983	<.001	–.145	.230	.865	.528	.225	.249	1.252	.368
Portugal	–1.159	.362	.314	.001	1.091	.309	2.979	<.001	.477	.271	1.612	.079	–.036	.333	.965	.915
United Kingdom	–1.203	.322	.300	<.001	.718	.277	2.050	.010	–.831	.274	.435	.002	–1.247	.365	.287	.001
Age
Age	–.017	.016	.983	.286	.003	.015	1.003	.863	.022	.016	1.022	.169	–.040	.019	.961	.032
Gender
Female (ref)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Male	.860	.151	2.364	<.001	–.584	.144	.557	<.001	–.633	.152	.531	<.001	.190	.176	1.209	.280
Employment
Student(ref)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Employed	.150	.193	1.162	.437	–.156	.182	.855	.391	–.363	.198	.696	.066	–.094	.206	.910	.648
Unemployed	.060	.400	1.062	.880	–.329	.396	.720	.407	.202	.361	1.224	.575	–.005	.407	.995	.990
Household
Alone(ref)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Partner/Housemates	–.287	.199	.751	.151	.456	.189	1.578	.016	.148	.196	1.159	.452	.155	.218	1.168	.477
Parents	–.577	.228	.562	.011	.329	.217	1.389	.130	.214	.229	1.238	.351	.344	.240	1.411	.151
Daily Cannabis Use
No (ref)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Yes	1.311	.190	3.709	<.001	–.668	.164	.513	<.001	–.736	.179	.479	<.001	–.130	.178	.878	.465

Table 5. Regression models: Sources of cannabis supply.

	Model 1: Friends (.162)				Model 2: Street dealer (.199)				Model 3: Home dealer (.199)				Model 4: Delivery (.194)				Model 5: Grower (.073)
Models (R ^2)	B	SE	Exp(B)	p	B	SE	Exp(B)	p	B	SE	Exp(B)	p	B	SE	Exp(B)	p	B	SE	Exp(B)	p
Country
Netherlands (ref)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
France	1.412	.237	4.105	<.001	2.459	.286	11.699	<.001	.949	.328	2.584	.004	4.028	.730	56.152	<.001	.376	.521	1.456	.470
Germany	1.628	.252	5.094	<.001	.969	.310	2.635	.002	2.240	.325	9.394	<.001	3.684	.742	39.796	<.001	1.824	.471	6.198	<.001
Greece	2.239	.338	9.383	<.001	1.009	.386	2.744	.009	2.783	.378	16.171	<.001	2.979	.802	19.674	<.001	1.126	.614	3.082	.067
Italy	1.873	.256	6.505	<.001	1.497	.304	4.468	<.001	2.456	.321	11.656	<.001	3.341	.746	28.243	<.001	.757	.524	2.132	.149
Portugal	1.972	.309	7.187	<.001	1.793	.346	6.008	<.001	2.112	.369	8.265	<.001	3.460	.770	31.804	<.001	.671	.653	1.957	.304
United Kingdom	.905	.253	2.471	<.001	1.925	.297	6.856	<.001	1.866	.323	6.460	<.001	3.707	.741	40.740	<.001	1.163	.486	3.200	.017
Age
Age	–.024	.015	.976	.119	–.037	.017	.944	.029	–.012	.017	.988	.488	0.16	.018	1.016	.374	.030	.027	1.030	.270
Gender
Female (ref)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Male	–.291	.161	.748	.071	–.058	.173	.944	.739	.299	.181	1.349	.098	.058	.197	1.059	.770	.006	.292	1.006	.984
Employment
Student(ref)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Employed	.001	.188	1.001	.997	–.256	.198	.774	.196	.112	.205	1.118	.586	–.144	.229	.866	.529	–.049	.342	.952	.886
Unemployed	.111	.382	1.118	.771	–.068	.415	.934	.870	.709	.406	2.032	.081	.155	.473	1.168	.743	.517	.614	1.677	.400
Household
Alone	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Partner/Housemates	.065	.179	1.067	.716	–.340	.198	.712	.086	.045	.199	1.047	.820	–.250	.205	.779	.224	.425	.329	1.530	.197
Parents	–.182	.213	.834	.393	.288	.223	1.334	.198	.037	.232	1.038	.872	–.900	.262	.407	.001	.009	.411	1.009	.982
Daily Cannabis Use
No (ref)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Yes	–.283	.151	.753	.060	.036	.159	1.037	.821	.705	.166	2.023	<.001	.135	.184	1.145	.462	.674	.271	1.961	.013

EMCDDA. (2017). Drug trafficking penalties across the European Union – A survey of expert opinion. Technical report. EMCDDA. http://emcdda.europa.eu/publications/technical-reports/trafficking-penalties

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