In Search of Cognitive Promotive and Protective Factors for Word Reading

ABSTRACT

This study examined whether strong cognitive skills (i.e. vocabulary, rapid naming, verbal working memory [VWM], and processing speed [PS]) contributed to resilience in single-word reading skills in children at risk for reading difficulties because of low phonological awareness scores (PA). Promotive factors were identified by main effects and protective factors through PA x cognition interactions. This study included 1,807 children ages 8–16. As predicted, all cognitive skills were significantly related to reading, consistent with promotive effects. A significant, but small effect PA x vocabulary interaction (R² change = .002, p = .00038) was detected but its form was not consistent with a classic protective effect. Rather, the PA x vocabulary interaction was consistent with a “skill-enhancement” pattern, such that children with strong PA and vocabulary skills had better than expected reading. This study provides a framework for reading resilience research and directs attention to promotive mechanisms underlying reading success.

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge Sarah Crennen, M.A. for research coordination, Nina Anderson, M.A. for editorial consultation, and the families who participated in this study.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that Lauren M. McGrath and Bruce F. Pennington receive royalties from the textbook, Diagnosing Learning Disorders: From Science into Practice, 3rd Edition from Guilford Press. All other authors declare no conflicts of interest. The findings reported in this manuscript are original, have not been published previously, and have not been simultaneously submitted elsewhere.

Supplementary material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed on the publisher’s website.

Correction Statement

This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Additional information

Funding

This study was supported by grants P50 HD027802 and R15 HD086662 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD).