Protein Fortification and Use of Cassava Flour for Bread Formulation

Figures & data

Figure 1 General procedure for solid state fermentation.

Figure 2 Preparation of samples for analysis.

Table 1 Ingredients used for preparing bread

Ingredients	Amount (g)
Total flour	100.0
Water	64.0
Active dry yeast powder	0.7
Non-fat milk powder	2.0
Shortening	4.0
Sugar	6.0
Salt	1.5

Table 2 Growth kinetics of Rhizopus strain on the basis of α amylase activity and protein production

	Raw cassava flour				Cooked cassava flour
	Fermentation temperature
	30°C		35°C		30°C		35°C
Strain	Protein (g/100 g DS*)	α Amylase activity (U/g DS)	Protein (g/100 g DS)	α Amylase activity (U/g DS)	Protein (g/100 g DS)	α Amylase activity (U/g DS)	Protein (%)	α Amylase activity (U/g DS)
S1	0.96	5.03	1.98	4.31	2.01	9.05	3.41	18.41
S2	2.14	4.69	2.52	8.30	3.37	16.90	7.68	27.53
S3	2.83	1.07	2.19	3.50	3.40	15.05	4.33	8.55
S4	1.79	2.53	2.27	5.40	4.00	1.54	4.67	19.84
S1: Rhizopus oryzae (TISTR3052); S2: Rhizopus oryzae (TISTR3058); S3: Rhizopus delemar (TISTR 3534); and S4: Rhizopus delemar (TISTR 3190);
* DS: dry sample.

Figure 3 Change of protein content, α-amylase activity and pH with time. S1: Rhizopus oryzae (TISTR 3052); S2: Rhizopus oryzae (TISTR 3058); S3: Rhizopus delemar (TISTR 3534); and S4: Rhizpus delemar (TISTR 3190). (Figure provided in color online.)

Table 3 Physicochemical properties of native flours and fermented flour

Sample	*Protein (% db)	Fat (% db)	Fiber (% db)	Ash (% db)	Total sugar (% db)	Amylose content (%)
Cassava flour	0.68	0.13	0.51	0.20	98.48	18.4
Fermented cassava flour**	14.90	0.22	1.55	4.50	79.21	16.06
Wheat flour	15.96	1.12	0.73	0.62	81.57	22.16
*Protein calculated from total nitrogen content % db;
** used gelatinized and fermented at 35°C.

Figure 4 RVA profiles of different cassava flour samples and wheat flour by a heat-hold-cool cooking cycle. (Figure provided in color online.)

Table 4 Effect of levels of native and treated cassava flour on bread texture change during storage

	Firmness (N)			Springiness (%)
Substitution (%)	1st day	2nd day	3rd day	1st day	2nd day	3rd day
Cassava bread
0	5.21^a	8.72^a	15.52^a	59.59^a	52.55^a	49.95^a
10	5.11^a	11.70^b	15.67^a	59.01^a	52.23^a	47.44^b
20	5.80^ab	12.90^b	16.41^a	56.73^a	51.42^a	46.78^b
30	7.79^bc	14.28^c	18.08^a	51.66^a	49.12^a	44.14^c
40	8.29^c	16.76^c	24.70^b	49.46^a	48.17^a	42.55^d
50	10.72^d	18.39^d	29.08^c	48.29^a	46.88^a	39.52^e
Fermented cassava bread
0	5.21^a	8.72^a	15.52^b	59.59^a	52.55a	49.95^a
10	5.88^ab	8.53^a	10.40^a	53.43^ab	49.24^ab	47.48^a
20	6.83^abc	9.55^a	15.23b	51.53^ab	48.74^ab	43.38^b
30	8.94^bc	13.23^b	16.00b	50.48^bc	42.41^bc	41.22^b
40	9.51^c	17.49^c	18.26b	49.22^c	38.10^c	35.23^c
50	11.86^d	18.24^c	21.06b	46.49^c	36.64^c	34.19^c
Soy protein enrich composite bread
0	5.21^c	8.72^b	15.52^c	59.59^a	52.55^a	49.95^a
10	3.05^a	5.93^a	8.66^a	59.47^a	52.95^a	51.01^a
20	4.59^ab	7.83^b	12.25^b	58.64^a	52.31^a	49.99^a
30	4.04^bc	8.44^b	12.27^b	58.29^a	51.03^a	47.80^b
40	6.94^d	11.32^c	18.89^c	56.88^a	49.51^a	44.25^c
50	7.64^d	18.06^d	23.59^d	55.79^a	44.02^a	40.06^d
Baking data were analyzed separately for each cassava flour substitution level. Mean in column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 95% confidence level (P > 0.05).

Figure 5 Volume and specific volume of composite bread. *wheat bread. S1: wheat and cassava flour composite bread; S2: wheat and fermented cassava flour composite bread; and S3: wheat and cassava flour fortified with soy protein.

Figure 6 Dough expansion of different composite bread. (Figure provided in color online.)

Table 5 Sensory evaluation of composite bread

	Overall acceptability
Substitution (%)	Wheat & cassava flour bread	wheat & fermented cassava flour bread	Wheat & fortified cassava flour bread
* 0	6.88^a	6.25^a	6.50^a
10	6.75^a	6.00^ab	6.50^a
20	6.63^a	5.63^ab	7.00^a
30	5.38^b	4.63^bc	6.38^ab
40	4.88^b	4.13^c	5.13^bc
50	4.50^b	4.00^c	5.00^c
Mean in column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 95% confidence level (P > 0.05)
*100% wheat flour bread.

Figure 7 Plotting between volume and bread crumb firmness with overall acceptability scores of all types of bread studied. (Figure provided in color online.)

Table 6 Nutritional values of composite wheat and cassava flour breads

	Nutritional values (% db)
Bread sample	Protein	Fat	Fiber	Ash
Wheat flour	13.39	2.55	2.02	2.22
Cassava flour*	10.53	2.48	1.08	1.71
Fermented cassava flour	12.33	2.94	2.29	2.33
Cassava flour fortified with soy protein	12.24	2.66	3.00	2.17
*20% substitution level composite bread.