Evaluation of Antioxidant Activities in Relation to Total Phenolics and Flavonoids Content of Selected Malaysian Wild Edible Plants by Multivariate Analysis

Figures & data

Table 1 Yield, total phenolics, and total flavonoids of wild edible plants

Samples/extracts	Yield (%)	Total phenolics (mg GAE/g dried weight sample)	Total flavonoids (mg CAE/g dried weight sample)
Aniseia martinicense (Leaf)
Methanolic extract	17.47^a ± 3.82	9.73^bc ± 0.45	5.61^b ± 1.73
Ethanolic extract	17.82^a ± 2.98	10.61^bc ± 3.12	3.84^bc ± 0.21
Acetone extract	15.74^a ± 2.13	15.05^ab ± 2.00	3.61^bc ± 0.99
Cold water extract	19.75^a ± 5.55	7.65^c ± 1.15	2.84^c ± 0.59
Hot water extract	19.75^a ± 0.32	18.40^a ± 5.46	7.94^a ± 1.69
Aniseia martinicense (Stem)
Methanolic extract	12.83^ab ± 4.64	3.61^b ± 0.88	2.20^b ± 0.71
Ethanolic extract	10.24^b ± 2.63	3.25^b ± 0.46	1.68^b ± 0.61
Acetone extract	11.29^ab ± 0.95	4.70^ab ± 0.19	2.12^b ± 0.07
Cold water extract	16.08^a ± 3.49	5.21^a ± 0.45	1.69^b ± 0.37
Hot water extract	16.21^a ± 0.08	11.08^a ± 8.31	8.37^a ± 2.62
Gonostegia hirta (Leaf)
Methanolic extract	11.67^a ± 0.21	5.63^ab ± 0.28	6.13^a ± 2.13
Ethanolic extract	13.77^a ± 1.80	7.20^ab ± 1.93	4.28^ab ± 1.84
Acetone extract	12.49^a ± 3.12	3.96^ab ± 0.41	2.01^c ± 0.26
Cold water extract	15.03^a ± 3.12	3.15^b ± 0.83	1.77^c ± 0.77
Hot water extract	14.79^a ± 3.81	8.24^a ± 4.68	4.56^a ± 0.55
Gonostegia hirta (Stem)
Methanolic extract	19.07^ab ± 1.17	5.26^b ± 1.01	3.98^bc ± 1.50
Ethanolic extract	13.47^c ± 1.43	3.88^b ± 1.06	2.99^cd ± 1.03
Acetone extract	15.38^bc ± 3.52	6.45^b ± 2.95	6.51^a ± 1.29
Cold water extract	18.88^ab ± 0.53	3.10^b ± 0.88	1.21^d ± 0.42
Hot water extract	20.43^a ± 2.07	10.82^a ± 2.81	5.81^ab ± 1.77
Heckeria umbellatum (Leaf)
Methanolic extract	29.16^a ± 0.50	19.39^a ± 2.46	5.94^a ± 1.12
Ethanolic extract	24.63^b ± 0.68	19.65^a ± 2.72	5.96^a ± 1.07
Acetone extract	24.62^b ± 2.24	12.86^b ± 3.04	3.79^b ± 0.30
Cold water extract	20.16^c ± 3.11	11.59^b ± 2.28	3.83^b ± 0.56
Hot water extract	25.97^ab ± 1.39	18.22^a ± 3.42	6.70^a ± 0.59
Heckeria umbellatum (Stem)
Methanolic extract	23.46^ab ± 4.91	2.88^a ± 0.59	1.12^b ± 0.21
Ethanolic extract	18.74^b ± 1.51	2.06^bc ± 0.28	0.87^bc ± 0.20
Acetone extract	19.78^bb ± 2.02	1.63^c ± 0.09	0.65^c ± 0.07
Cold water extract	26.28^a ± 3.11	2.52^ab ± 0.06	1.15^b ± 0.03
Hot water extract	27.71^a ± 0.03	2.37^ab ± 0.09	1.79^a ± 0.24
Heckeria umbellatum (Flower)
Methanolic extract	21.98^a ± 5.07	3.24^bc ± 0.96	1.92^ab ± 0.56
Ethanolic extract	16.53^a ± 6.74	7.01^a ± 2.63	1.76^ab ± 1.05
Acetone extract	18.71^a ± 4.91	4.91^abc ± 1.77	2.06^ab ± 0.27
Cold water extract	13.54^a ± 3.31	2.08^c ± 0.44	1.32^b ± 0.48
Hot water extract	15.76^a ± 0.72	5.90^ab ± 2.01	2.81^a ± 0.87
Helminthostachys zeylanica (Leaf)
Methanolic extract	24.69^a ± 2.08	4.09^c ± 0.58	0.30^c ± 0.02
Ethanolic extract	23.95^a ± 0.81	4.44^c ± 0.77	0.33^c ± 0.05
Acetone extract	22.74^a ± 3.27	5.64^bc ± 1.09	0.41^bc ± 0.10
Cold water extract	26.64^a ± 2.72	9.08^a ± 2.13	0.70^a ± 0.16
Hot water extract	23.39^a ± 1.21	7.37^ab ± 1.69	0.54^a ± 0.10
Helminthostachys zeylanica (Stem)
Methanolic extract	36.44^a ± 2.28	3.19^a ± 0.49	0.31^b ± 0.09
Ethanolic extract	30.26^ab ± 8.44	1.58^c ± 0.47	0.17^c ± 0.00
Acetone extract	30.15^ab ± 1.78	2.53^b ± 0.17	0.42^a ± 0.07
Cold water extract	32.81^ab ± 0.91	1.56^c ± 0.24	0.19^c ± 0.02
Hot water extract	27.56^b ± 2.22	2.12^bc ± 0.32	0.23^bc ± 0.04
Lasia spinosa (Whole Plant)
Methanolic extract	26.55^ab ± 3.38	4.36^bc ± 1.05	1.21^b ± 0.17
Ethanolic extract	20.65^b ± 3.56	2.79^c ± 0.64	0.90^b ± 0.16
Acetone extract	23.39^ab ± 5.37	6.98^a ± 1.23	2.65^a ± 0.83
Cold water extract	29.16^a ± 2.83	6.86^a ± 0.73	1.05^b ± 0.07
Hot water extract	28.12^a ± 0.54	5.65^ab ± 0.84	1.33^b ± 0.07
Schismatoglottis ahmadii (Leaf)
Methanolic extract	10.15^b ± 1.31	2.43^b ± 0.37	0.63^ab ± 0.14
Ethanolic extract	10.66^b ± 2.95	2.76^ab ± 0.49	0.59^ab ± 0.10
Acetone extract	9.23^b ± 1.81	1.29^c ± 1.09	0.46^ab ± 0.16
Cold water extract	13.00^b ± 0.21	3.31^a ± 0.33	0.38^b ± 0.05
Hot water extract	17.54^a ± 2.95	3.55^a ± 0.67	0.71^a ± 0.22
Schismatoglottis ahmadii (Stem)
Methanolic extract	10.50^b ± 3.93	1.29^a ± 0.47	0.30^b ± 0.09
Ethanolic extract	8.79^b ± 1.77	0.69^a ± 0.16	0.24^b ± 0.01
Acetone extract	12.38^b ± 2.25	0.83^a ± 0.17	0.23^b ± 0.06
Cold water extract	20.48^a ± 1.39	1.13^a ± 0.41	0.50^a ± 0.07
Hot water extract	22.71^a ± 0.91	1.11^a ± 0.24	0.45^a ± 0.10

Mean of three determination ± SD (standard deviation).

Total phenolics and total flavonoids were expressed as milligrams of Gallic Acid Equivalent (GAE) and Catechin Equivalent (CAE) per gram of dried weight sample.

Values within the same column for the same samples with different extracts of (a–d) lowercase letters as superscripts are significantly different at P < 0.05.

Table 2 Antioxidant activity of wild edible plants

Samples/extracts	ORAC (μmol TE/g dried weight sample)	FRAP (μmol TE/g dried weight sample)	ABTS (μmol TE/g dried weight sample)	DPPH (antiradical power)
Aniseia martinicense (Leaf)
Methanolic extract	388.26^a ± 19.28	86.65^b ± 7.93	100.79^a ± 11.75	7.76^c ± 0.54
Ethanolic extract	323.57^ab ± 84.84	55.16^bc ± 10.77	42.77^b ± 9.04	9.16^b ± 0.45
Acetone extract	269.41^b ± 74.00	60.75^bc ± 18.78	49.03^b ± 8.04	4.21^d ± 0.60
Cold water extract	251.12^b ± 10.83	42.44^c ± 5.10	58.91^b ± 9.44	2.63^e ± 0.06
Hot water extract	309.55^ab ± 26.25	200.56^a ± 38.44	111.87^a ± 16.08	10.74^a ± 0.64
Aniseia martinicense (Stem)
Methanolic extract	124.34^a ± 38.39	39.32^a ± 6.86	26.31^c ± 10.37	5.06^b ± 0.82
Ethanolic extract	92.14^a ± 21.72	27.71^b ± 7.13	17.89^c ± 3.31	4.65^c ± 0.48
Acetone extract	100.00^a ± 8.99	29.78^ab ± 2.22	16.95^c ± 6.17	4.51^c ± 0.04
Cold water extract	109.07^a ± 6.73	39.23^a ± 4.94	54.37^b ± 7.28	3.19^d ± 0.12
Hot water extract	124.45^a ± 36.06	26.45^b ± 5.66	95.94^a ± 22.54	6.13^a ± 1.36
Gonostegia hirta (Leaf)
Methanolic extract	131.99^ab ± 16.00	48.10^bc ± 14.42	32.87^c ± 4.03	6.28^d ± 0.05
Ethanolic extract	138.07^a ± 30.80	87.45^a ± 18.80	60.13^b ± 3.56	12.63^a ± 1.59
Acetone extract	109.25^ab ± 34.23	41.05^bc ± 14.08	55.65^b ± 12.13	7.74^c ± 1.17
Cold water extract	77.27^b ± 4.35	34.26^c ± 9.55	60.64^b ± 10.10	0.86^e ± 0.19
Hot water extract	110.74^ab ± 43.20	66.37^a ± 9.69	134.71^a ± 7.22	10.87^b ± 3.07
Gonostegia hirta (Stem)
Methanolic extract	171.93^a ± 31.41	45.11^b ± 9.35	39.17^c ± 12.85	4.82^c ± 1.13
Ethanolic extract	121.38^a ± 20.23	40.85^b ± 11.29	56.87^c ± 7.63	6.72^b ± 1.34
Acetone extract	140.27^a ± 55.98	81.81^a ± 27.07	94.35^b ± 10.02	8.54^a ± 0.97
Cold water extract	66.70^b ± 18.78	28.20^b ± 6.46	38.12^c ± 7.75	0.65^d ± 0.23
Hot water extract	134.60^a ± 22.69	89.67^ab ± 19.22	131.02^a ± 28.87	8.82^a ± 1.87
Heckeria umbellatum (Leaf)
Methanolic extract	598.78^a ± 77.27	119.97^a ± 16.73	89.76^bc ± 14.56	6.48^b ± 0.49
Ethanolic extract	400.61^b ± 22.78	104.56^a ± 17.65	158.01^a ± 15.90	8.76^a ± 1.09
Acetone extract	527.71^a ± 61.95	94.63^a ± 5.83	69.92^cd ± 5.26	6.56^b ± 0.63
Cold water extract	347.03^b ± 36.47	64.88^b ± 11.71	60.64^d ± 7.73	3.94^c ± 0.52
Hot water extract	345.24^b ± 49.81	100.41^a ± 17.78	94.35^b ± 8.17	8.63^a ± 0.81
Heckeria umbellatum (Stem)
Methanolic extract	159.86^ab ± 33.58	23.31^a ± 4.62	21.47^d ± 4.41	1.56^a ± 0.10
Ethanolic extract	72.76^c ± 21.82	21.55^a ± 5.86	24.57^cd ± 2.61	1.04^d ± 0.05
Acetone extract	156.84^ab ± 12.02	36.75^a ± 16.34	37.61^c ± 6.61	1.31^c ± 0.07
Cold water extract	162.25^a ± 19.61	31.42^a ± 6.77	52.23^b ± 10.44	0.44^e ± 0.04
Hot water extract	119.27^b ± 13.83	29.25^a ± 4.47	84.58^a ± 11.04	1.35^b ± 0.20
Heckeria umbellatum (Flower)
Methanolic extract	201.57^a ± 70.61	28.99^ab ± 7.74	43.59^c ± 7.93	2.86^c ± 0.28
Ethanolic extract	125.95^a ± 64.17	28.14^ab ± 4.39	60.60^c ± 11.57	3.44^b ± 0.58
Acetone extract	219.95^a ± 116.88	60.16^a ± 35.39	91.51^b ± 9.83	5.07^a ± 0.77
Cold water extract	109.68^a ± 15.60	18.39^b ± 3.25	55.36^c ± 5.54	0.96^d ± 0.13
Hot water extract	119.29^a ± 27.64	41.68^ab ± 15.24	129.91^a ± 25.04	2.78^c ± 0.60
Helminthostachys zeylanica (Leaf)
Methanolic extract	118.64^a ± 19.60	37.12^b ± 11.57	49.51^ab ± 10.07	0.67^d ± 0.16
Ethanolic extract	125.06^a ± 9.73	34.01^b ± 3.53	56.92^a ± 7.92	0.96^b ± 0.06
Acetone extract	102.25^a ± 16.82	39.91^ab ± 15.63	28.52^c ± 8.27	0.74^c ± 0.11
Cold water extract	128.27^a ± 15.89	56.75^a ± 9.88	37.42^bc ± 3.10	1.37^a ± 0.08
Hot water extract	89.86^b ± 11.24	24.46^b ± 3.37	44.72^abc ± 11.23	0.95^b ± 0.11
Helminthostachys zeylanica (Stem)
Methanolic extract	129.59^a ± 17.12	21.43^ab ± 5.25	12.71^b ± 3.16	0.39^d ± 0.03
Ethanolic extract	110.93^ab ± 32.36	15.22^b ± 1.46	22.38^b ± 6.66	0.45^c ± 0.03
Acetone extract	117.57^ab ± 40.95	17.91^ab ± 1.56	35.61^a ± 8.92	0.62^b ± 0.10
Cold water extract	80.65^bc ± 7.21	23.46^a ± 2.78	21.33^b ± 6.83	0.93^a ± 0.19
Hot water extract	60.26^c ± 5.76	20.32^a ± 4.75	34.81^a ± 5.85	0.39^d ± 0.01
Lasia spinosa (Whole Plant)
Methanolic extract	208.37^b ± 38.91	45.01^c ± 6.69	55.52^d ± 6.97	2.52^b ± 0.40
Ethanolic extract	107.85^d ± 16.45	63.99^ab ± 11.34	63.20^d ± 7.89	2.09^c ± 0.28
Acetone extract	257.38^a ± 33.23	68.04^a ± 8.57	84.65^c ± 9.63	3.54^a ± 0.26
Cold water extract	224.46^ab ± 1.36	49.48^bc ± 3.89	121.10^b ± 7.18	1.23^d ± 0.10
Hot water extract	159.05^c ± 4.89	58.27^abc ± 5.88	197.26^a ± 14.69	1.90^c ± 0.23
Schismatoglottis ahmadii (Leaf)
Methanolic extract	55.69^ab ± 6.03	19.55^abc ± 3.18	14.43^b ± 1.79	0.86^b ± 0.21
Ethanolic extract	51.35^ab ± 6.29	17.99^b ± 1.16	14.06^b ± 2.84	1.57^a ± 0.36
Acetone extract	40.97^b ± 7.00	14.17^c ± 1.80	13.49^b ± 4.08	0.63^c ± 0.01
Cold water extract	46.67^ab ± 6.33	24.65^ab ± 1.34	16.22^b ± 1.18	0.30^d ± 0.01
Hot water extract	60.56^a ± 13.91	27.48^a ± 8.87	53.14^a ± 6.50	0.96^b ± 0.15
Schismatoglottis ahmadii (Stem)
Methanolic extract	41.85^a ± 16.32	12.84^b ± 2.95	5.81^d ± 1.85	0.64^b ± 0.13
Ethanolic extract	33.17^a ± 6.10	6.83^b ± 1.79	7.09^d ± 0.67	0.73^a ± 0.13
Acetone extract	33.53^a ± 8.89	8.48^b ± 2.24	18.87^c ± 2.32	0.56^c ± 0.05
Cold water extract	46.16^a ± 13.92	22.45^a ± 7.32	69.44^a ± 5.73	0.20^d ± 0.01
Hot water extract	45.54^a ± 2.79	23.60^a ± 5.39	57.36^b ± 7.96	0.67^b ± 0.23

Mean of three determination ± SD (standard deviation).

ORAC, FRAP and ABTS antioxidant activity assays were expressed as micromoles of Trolox equivalents (TE) per gram of dried weight sample.

Values within the same column for the same samples with different extracts of (a-e) lowercase letters as superscripts are significantly different at P < 0.05.

Table 3 Principal component loadings of variables for methanolic and hot water extracts

	Methanolic extract		Hot water extract
Variable	PC1	PC2	PC1	PC2
FRAP	0.920	0.332	0.843	0.269
ABTS	0.764	0.525	0.122	0.865
DPPH	0.168	0.966	0.330	0.763
ORAC	0.939	0.220	0.920	0.136
Total phenolics	0.965	0.132	0.934	0.204
Total flavonoids	0.636	0.535	0.799	0.364
% of variance	61.27	27.86	63.78	16.01

PC: principal component; FRAP: ferric reducing antioxidant power; ABTS: ABTS radical scavenging activity; DPPH: DPPH radical scavenging activity; ORAC: oxygen radical antioxidant capacity.

Figure 1  Score plot obtained from PCA of antioxidant activity and total phenolics and flavonoids for methanolic extract.

Figure 2  Score plot obtained from PCA of antioxidant activity and total phenolics and flavonoids for hot water extract.