A Study on the Relationship Between Rheological Properties of Wheat Flour, Gluten Structure, and Dumpling Wrapper Quality

Figures & data

TABLE 1 Mean absorption frequencies of various secondary structure elements in proteins^[21]

Mean frequency (cm^–1)	Secondary structure assignment
1624	β-sheet
1627	β-sheet
1632	β-sheet, extended chain
1638	β-sheet
1642	β-sheet
1650	Unordered (random)
1656	α-helix
1666	β-turn
1672	β-turn
1680	β-turn
1688	β-turn

TABLE 2 Correlation between dough rheological properties and dumpling wrapper texture qualities^a

		DDT /min	ST /min	SOFT /FU	QN	EE /cm^2	ER /BU	Ex /mm	Ex R
Firmness		0.286*	0.383**	–0.545**	0.360**	0.560**	0.487**	0.087	0.414**
TPA	Hardness	0.393**	0.423**	–0.463**	0.417**	0.247	0.288*	–0.255	0.309*
	Springiness	–0.014	0.093	–0.147	0.089	0.092	0.068	0.019	0.074
	Cohesiveness	0.083	0.052	0.043	0.039	0.102	0.049	0.028	0.062
	Chewiness	0.390**	0.420**	–0.465**	0.413**	0.262	0.292*	–0.235	0.312*
	Resilience	0.108	0.148	–0.159	0.144	0.151	0.066	0.045	0.034
Toughness		0.287*	0.387**	–0.517**	0.382**	0.250	0.337*	–0.275	0.369**

^aSignificant at *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. DDT: dough development time; ST: stability time; Soft, degree of softening (FU – Farinograph units); QN: quality number; EE: extension energy; ER: extension resistance (BU: Brabender units); DE: dough extensibility; Ex R: extension ratio.

TABLE 3 Correlation between disulfide and sulfhydryl content and rheological properties^a

	DDT/min	ST/min	Soft/FU	QN	EE/cm^2	ER/BU	DE/mm	Ex R
Sulfhydryl content	–0.064	–0.056	0.012	–0.032	–0.199	–0.267	0.039	–0.280*
Disulfide content	0.505**	0.742**	–0.653**	0.736**	0.645**	0.636**	–0.124	0.590**

^aSignificant at *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. DDT: dough development time; ST: stability time; Soft: degree of softening; QN: quality number; EE: extension energy; ER: extension resistance; DE: dough extensibility; Ex R: extension ratio.

TABLE 4 Correlation between disulfide and sulfhydryl content and dumpling wrapper texture quality^a

	Fi/g	Ha/g	Sp	Co	Ch/g	Re	To/g
Sulfhydryl content	–0.101	0.094	0.145	–0.018	0.114	0.025	0.018
Disulfide content	0.382**	0.326*	–0.071	0.148	0.321*	0.332*	0.407**

^aSignificant at *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. Fi: firmness; Ha: hardness; Sp: springiness; Co: cohesiveness; Ch: chewiness; Re: Resilience; To: toughness.

TABLE 5 Correlation between gluten secondary structure and rheological properties^a

	DDT/min	ST/min	Soft/FU	QN	EE/cm^2	ER/BU	DE/mm	Ex R
α-helix	–0.036	–0.068	0.040	–0.041	–0.094	–0.085	0.018	–0.067
β-sheet	0.301*	0.377**	–0.481**	0.390**	0.310*	0.255	0.144	0.187
β-turn	–0.325*	–0.398**	0.471**	–0.413**	–0.293*	–0.246	–0.116	–0.189
Random coil	0.184	0.239	–0.181	0.227	0.108	0.127	–0.100	0.135

^aSignificant at *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. DDT: dough development time; ST: stability time; Soft: degree of softening; QN: quality number; EE: extension energy; ER: extension resistance; DE: dough extensibility; Ex R: extension ratio.

TABLE 6 Correlation between gluten secondary structure and dumpling wrapper texture quality^a

	Fi/g	Ha/g	Sp	Co	Ch/g	Re	To/g
α-helix	–0.119	–0.016	0.158	–0.215	–0.019	–0.348*	–0.248
β-sheet	0.318*	0.052	0.126	–0.053	0.048	0.025	–0.008
β-turn	–0.261	–0.082	–0.138	0.138	–0.068	0.052	0.067
Random coil	0.023	0.091	–0.079	–0.058	0.069	0.095	0.085

^aSignificant at *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. Fi: firmness; Ha: hardness; Sp: springiness; Co: cohesiveness; Ch: chewiness; Re: Resilience; To: toughness.

TABLE 7 Correlation between disulfide and sulfhydryl content and gluten secondary structure^a

	α-helix	β-sheet	β-turn	Random-coil
Sulfhydryl content	–0.048	0.134	–0.127	0.039
Disulfide content	–0.129	0.354*	–0.325*	0.109

^aSignificant at *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.

TABLE 8 The rheological properties of the five cultivars^a

Cultivar	DDT/min	ST/min	Soft/FU	QN	EE/cm^2	ER/BU	DE/mm	Ex R
Hengguan35	1.90	1.40	160.00	27.00	39.00	172.00	147.00	1.20
Taomai	4.20	4.10	115.00	60.00	65.00	239.00	203.00	1.20
Jimai22	3.30	7.00	27 .00	110.00	72.00	216.00	193 .00	1.10
Xinong979	6.90	10.80	48 .00	121.00	121.00	390.00	161.00	2.40
Xinong9718	2.70	32.30	9 .00	374.00	119.00	360.00	164.00	2.20

^aDDT: dough development time; ST: stability time; Soft: degree of softening; QN: quality number; EE: extension energy; ER: extension resitance; DE: dough extensibility; Ex R: extension ratio.

TABLE 9 The gluten secondary structure and sulfhydryl and disulfide content of the five cultivars

Cultivar	α-helix/%	β-sheet/%	β-turn/%	Random coil /%	Sulfhydryl/μmol/g	Disulfide/μmol/g
Hengguan35	15.73	42.74	28.99	12.54	3.60	7.63
Taomai	17.27	45.07	26.11	11.55	1.85	9.53
Jimai22	15.86	46.24	25.38	12.52	2.88	16.32
Xinong979	14.56	41.27	30.89	13.28	2.30	17.11
Xinong9718	15.32	46.86	23.77	14.05	2.72	20.07

FIGURE 1 Images of the gluten microstructure of the five cultivars taken with SEM (300 ×). (a) Hengguan35; (b) Taomai; (c) Jimai22; (d) Xinong979; (e) Xinong9718.

Table A1 The dough rheological properties of the 50 samples from 10 provinces in China

Sample source	Cultivar	Dough rheological properties
		Dough development time/min	Stability time/min	Degree of softening/FU	Quality number	Extension energy/cm^2	Extension resistance/BU	Dough extensibility/mm	Extension ratio
Anhui-002	Hunmai	6.2	9.3	63	116	116	393	159	2.5
Anhui-007	Yannong19	8.0	13.1	44	160	88	320	158	1.8
Anhui-013	Zhoumai16	3.1	2.9	115	49	36	220	115	1.9
Anhui-031	8802	4.1	5.7	78	76	45	205	143	1.4
Henan-042	Zhongmai1	5.9	14.4	29	182	83	372	132	2.8
Henan-018	Hengguan35	1.9	1.4	160	27	39	172	147	1.2
Henan-019	02-1	18.8	29.4	32	300	180	664	143	4.6
Henan-026	Xinong979	7.2	18.4	25	225	107	542	121	4.5
Henan-044	Aikang58	3.8	7.3	53	110	50	244	123	2.0
Henan-053	Zhoumai18	2.0	2.2	165	31	42	196	133	1.5
Henan-006	Zhengmai9023	21.2	31.9	17	367	136	454	153	3.0
Henan-008	Xinong979	18.9	29.7	27	316	143	601	133	4.5
Henan-011	Aikang58	15.0	24.1	21	303	83	356	135	2.6
Henan-020	Zhengmai9023	7.3	20.0	8	262	93	363	142	2.6
Henan-029	Xinong9718	2.7	32.3	9	374	119	360	164	2.2
Hubei-003	Zhengmai9023	11.5	19.3	23	236	100	318	163	2.0
Hubei-012	Zhengmai9023	16.8	28.5	30	308	130	417	157	2.7
Hubei-014	5176	2.5	1.6	205	35	38	178	146	1.2
Hubei-016	Chuanmai49	3.5	5.3	119	68	59	230	146	1.6
Hubei-017	Zhoumai24	4.5	15.6	45	185	77	246	162	1.5
Jiangsu-H2	Zhengmai9023	2.5	13.2	16	156	68	208	175	1.2
Jiangsu-H3	Huaimai20	2.0	3.1	36	55	21	84	153	0.5
Jiangsu-S1	Yangmai14	5.0	7.5	35	86	80	328	148	2.2
Jiangsu-T2	Yangmai13	1.7	2.8	88	34	53	165	182	0.9
Jiangsu-Y1	Huaimai20	2.0	12.8	7	179	63	197	171	1.2
Inner Mongolia-001	Taomai	4.4	4.8	110	68	90	250	212	1.2
Inner Mongolia-003	Yongliang4	3.5	3.7	132	54	78	300	191	1.6
Inner Mongolia-005	Taomai	4.2	4.1	115	60	65	239	203	1.2
Inner Mongolia-010	Fan8	3.5	3.7	130	54	80	292	188	1.6
Ningxia-001	Ningdong12	2.6	2.0	152	37	21	76	196	0.4
Ningxia-007	Yongliang4	5.5	5.8	114	78	104	172	260	0.7
Ningxia-008	Ningchun39	5.0	4.6	140	71	76	177	246	0.7
Shandong-062	Jimai22	3.3	7.0	27	110	72	216	193	1.1
Shandong-309	Yannong19	4.0	4.6	44	70	66	203	190	1.1
Shandong-378	Yannong14	5.2	7.0	33	93	97	248	194	1.3
Shanxi-01	Jinmai84	3.1	2.3	106	40	37	156	142	1.1
Shanxi-05	Jinmai79	2.7	1.9	163	35	29	142	126	1.1
Shaanxi-002	Wunong148	2.6	1.7	136	38	87	182	247	0.7
Shaanxi-101	Xiaoyan22	2.4	1.6	210	35	29	114	143	0.8
Shaanxi-147	Xinong979	6.9	10.8	48	121	121	390	161	2.4
Shaanxi-149	Xinong9871	4.0	6.0	52	93	80	338	137	2.5
Shaanxi-152	Xinong979	2.4	2.3	186	39	50	199	154	1.3
Shaanxi-167	Xinong979	3.1	6.0	57	85	84	285	159	1.8
Shaanxi-184	Xiaoyan22	2.3	1.1	231	26	19	90	144	0.6
Shaanxi-263	Jinmai54	4.6	6.1	59	80	57	215	156	1.4
Sinkiang-08	Xindong17	2.9	11.7	24	110	140	350	190	1.8
Sinkiang-18	Handan5316	2.7	1.4	145	34	22	102	153	0.7
Sinkiang-19	Yinong12	2.9	2.1	107	38	50	182	178	1.0
Sinkiang-23	Xindong18	6.3	8.1	35	95	70	222	168	1.3
Sinkiang-28	Xindong22	2.7	11.6	28	108	127	289	196	1.5

Table A2 The dumpling wrapper texture qualities of the 50 samples from 10 provinces in China

Sample source	Cultivar	Dumpling wrapper texture qualities
		Firmness/g	Hardness/g	Springiness	Cohesiveness	Chewiness/g	Resilience	Toughness/g
Anhui-002	Hunmai	746.94	3883.29	0.93	0.88	3189.32	0.37	78.67
Anhui-007	Yannong19	655.24	4726.49	0.90	0.82	3502.39	0.28	66.82
Anhui-013	Zhoumai16	476.80	3911.68	0.95	0.83	3067.90	0.25	51.07
Anhui-031	8802	454.29	3853.85	0.95	0.85	3109.16	0.29	81.46
Henan-042	Zhongmai1	611.23	4725.68	0.94	0.83	3662.19	0.28	100.02
Henan-018	Hengguan35	397.50	4622.13	0.97	0.83	3714.91	0.27	57.00
Henan-019	02-1	536.12	5134.67	0.97	0.83	4127.71	0.29	96.44
Henan-026	Xinong979	751.06	5094.58	0.95	0.84	4070.04	0.30	109.35
Henan-044	Aikang58	614.06	5008.38	0.96	0.82	3953.55	0.30	78.50
Henan-053	Zhoumai18	422.57	5186.63	0.95	0.81	3990.04	0.30	67.88
Henan-006	Zhengmai9023	615.75	6125.55	0.93	0.83	4731.44	0.31	97.76
Henan-008	Xinong979	782.35	5729.39	0.94	0.84	4526.38	0.30	98.17
Henan-011	Aikang58	604.27	4928.19	0.97	0.83	3965.42	0.30	90.48
Henan-020	Zhengmai9023	594.10	4639.14	0.98	0.82	3710.78	0.27	61.50
Henan-029	Xinong9718	701.79	4717.05	0.96	0.84	3794.12	0.32	98.19
Hubei-003	Zhengmai9023	433.07	4985.63	0.95	0.82	3899.44	0.32	81.29
Hubei-012	Zhengmai9023	737.59	5722.92	0.96	0.86	4688.96	0.35	95.55
Hubei-014	5176	414.01	3177.02	0.93	0.83	2447.19	0.28	58.35
Hubei-016	Chuanmai49	430.10	4082.91	0.96	0.83	3275.53	0.31	77.04
Hubei-017	Zhoumai24	466.88	5495.37	0.95	0.81	4218.02	0.34	73.56
Jiangsu-H2	Zhengmai9023	673.00	5557.84	0.95	0.82	4342.97	0.32	112.23
Jiangsu-H3	Huaimai20	508.04	4382.19	0.96	0.80	3345.07	0.28	67.23
Jiangsu-S1	Yangmai14	800.61	4866.25	0.94	0.83	3798.13	0.31	114.39
Jiangsu-T2	Yangmai13	520.97	5239.81	0.94	0.83	4056.71	0.31	106.93
Jiangsu-Y1	Huaimai20	481.80	4540.70	0.94	0.83	3531.83	0.31	93.57
Inner Mongolia-001	Taomai	598.28	4677.78	0.96	0.83	3709.87	0.29	59.69
Inner Mongolia-003	Yongliang4	492.01	3753.87	0.97	0.80	2895.54	0.25	46.65
Inner Mongolia-005	Taomai	627.11	4310.88	0.96	0.80	3326.54	0.26	76.77
Inner Mongolia-010	Fan8	440.11	3918.41	0.96	0.78	2911.45	0.26	56.04
Ningxia-001	Ningdong12	536.43	2576.65	0.96	0.88	2160.23	0.30	52.11
Ningxia-007	Yongliang4	619.68	4353.56	0.97	0.83	3492.03	0.26	66.61
Ningxia-008	Ningchun39	572.68	3266.02	0.91	0.84	2490.73	0.34	57.80
Shandong-062	Jimai22	650.06	5639.76	0.95	0.81	4363.60	0.32	114.86
Shandong-309	Yannong19	648.89	5800.01	0.96	0.83	5053.57	0.31	104.99
Shandong-378	Yannong14	673.05	5791.49	0.96	0.85	4761.15	0.31	96.91
Shanxi-01	Jinmai84	622.94	6621.10	0.95	0.86	5392.91	0.35	97.10
Shanxi-05	Jinmai79	713.00	5607.64	0.95	0.85	4478.87	0.31	107.61
Shaanxi-002	Wunong148	639.30	3319.65	0.94	0.88	2719.56	0.35	46.12
Shaanxi-101	Xiaoyan22	425.28	4172.57	0.93	0.82	3185.25	0.29	76.00
Shaanxi-147	Xinong979	817.41	4353.85	0.92	0.86	3448.26	0.36	95.35
Shaanxi-149	Xinong9871	700.70	4818.95	0.98	0.80	3773.07	0.26	99.59
Shaanxi-152	Xinong979	529.87	3484.46	0.91	0.86	2714.50	0.37	98.94
Shaanxi-167	Xinong979	636.22	3059.61	0.92	0.85	2370.41	0.31	55.52
Shaanxi-184	Xiaoyan22	406.03	3918.28	0.96	0.83	3111.84	0.28	51.92
Shaanxi-263	Jinmai54	700.14	3877.80	0.92	0.87	3098.76	0.37	91.38
Sinkiang-08	Xindong17	649.10	4282.63	0.97	0.82	3388.04	0.27	67.22
Sinkiang-18	Handan5316	289.76	5076.33	0.94	0.82	3880.20	0.26	65.06
Sinkiang-19	Yinong12	503.17	4200.99	0.96	0.80	3202.00	0.28	60.16
Sinkiang-23	Xindong18	547.48	4920.26	0.95	0.81	3795.19	0.31	111.49
Sinkiang-28	Xindong22	765.52	4651.48	0.97	0.83	3706.97	0.29	73.24

Table A3 The sulfhydryl and disulfide content and gluten secondary structure of the 50 samples from 10 provinces in China

Sample source	Cultivar	Gluten secondary structure				Sulfhydryl and disulfide content
		α-helix/%	β-sheet/%	β-turn/%	Random coil/%	Sulfhydryl/μmol/g	Disulfide/μmol/g
Anhui-002	Hunmai	13.76	44.68	29.63	11.92	1.74	15.89
Anhui-007	Yannong19	16.95	47.68	21.46	13.92	2.02	15.79
Anhui-013	Zhoumai16	16.30	43.70	26.70	13.30	1.04	11.38
Anhui-031	8802	14.95	52.23	19.75	13.07	2.66	16.00
Henan-042	Zhongmai1	14.63	47.37	24.91	13.08	2.08	19.44
Henan-018	Hengguan35	15.73	42.74	28.99	12.54	3.60	7.63
Henan-019	02-1	15.13	49.55	22.03	13.30	1.79	21.16
Henan-026	Xinong979	16.05	45.01	26.08	12.86	0.56	20.14
Henan-044	Aikang58	17.22	45.82	23.26	13.69	3.02	15.74
Henan-053	Zhoumai18	15.58	44.53	25.91	13.98	1.50	9.44
Henan-006	Zhengmai9023	16.85	46.55	22.95	13.64	2.13	19.06
Henan-008	Xinong979	15.54	47.26	22.94	14.25	1.79	17.29
Henan-011	Aikang58	15.06	48.87	20.54	15.52	2.47	16.40
Henan-020	Zhengmai9023	18.19	52.30	18.97	10.54	2.21	14.22
Henan-029	Xinong9718	15.32	46.86	23.77	14.05	2.72	20.07
Hubei-003	Zhengmai9023	16.41	48.01	22.35	13.23	1.86	16.40
Hubei-012	Zhengmai9023	15.50	46.89	24.61	13.00	1.92	19.96
Hubei-014	5176	18.56	41.66	27.33	12.46	1.88	9.83
Hubei-016	Chuanmai49	16.61	44.54	25.51	13.33	2.10	18.79
Hubei-017	Zhoumai24	14.53	48.84	16.91	19.71	2.39	18.90
Jiangsu-H2	Zhengmai9023	13.68	44.18	27.05	15.09	1.46	18.06
Jiangsu-H3	Huaimai20	17.75	44.94	23.20	14.12	2.07	10.50
Jiangsu-S1	Yangmai14	17.84	45.02	23.24	13.89	1.63	14.55
Jiangsu-T2	Yangmai13	15.21	43.83	28.61	12.35	1.92	9.94
Jiangsu-Y1	Huaimai20	17.47	52.34	20.99	9.20	1.74	19.96
Inner Mongolia-001	Taomai	15.27	46.16	23.52	11.05	2.18	15.13
Inner Mongolia-003	Yongliang4	16.82	46.03	24.19	12.96	2.04	10.07
Inner Mongolia-005	Taomai	14.53	43.88	29.13	12.46	1.85	9.53
Inner Mongolia-010	Fan8	17.27	45.07	26.11	11.55	1.19	13.78
Ningxia-001	Ningdong12	15.45	45.95	25.63	12.97	2.49	9.53
Ningxia-007	Yongliang4	17.69	46.40	22.32	13.60	2.16	10.98
Ningxia-008	Ningchun39	15.12	49.74	22.96	12.18	1.69	17.90
Shandong-062	Jimai22	15.86	46.24	25.38	12.52	2.88	16.32
Shandong-309	Yannong19	17.15	45.25	23.96	13.63	2.62	9.62
Shandong-378	Yannong14	14.62	43.94	29.20	12.25	1.80	16.57
Shanxi-01	Jinmai84	16.15	46.44	29.32	8.08	2.31	13.03
Shanxi-05	Jinmai79	16.84	44.23	25.29	13.64	2.11	11.49
Shaanxi-002	Wunong148	16.75	45.60	23.57	14.08	1.85	10.36
Shaanxi-101	Xiaoyan22	14.25	36.59	37.85	11.31	2.62	11.69
Shaanxi-147	Xinong979	15.83	48.12	22.05	14.00	2.30	17.11
Shaanxi-149	Xinong9871	14.56	41.27	30.89	13.28	2.16	10.00
Shaanxi-152	Xinong979	14.97	43.69	29.24	12.10	1.79	9.72
Shaanxi-167	Xinong979	14.79	43.62	27.62	13.97	1.89	11.61
Shaanxi-184	Xiaoyan22	15.23	40.53	31.45	12.79	1.48	10.27
Shaanxi-263	Jinmai54	14.23	46.40	25.74	13.63	2.27	14.47
Sinkiang-08	Xindong17	17.92	57.23	14.12	10.74	1.98	14.60
Sinkiang-18	Handan5316	16.73	44.56	23.94	14.77	2.03	9.19
Sinkiang-19	Yinong12	15.68	55.43	18.57	10.33	2.66	9.31
Sinkiang-23	Xindong18	14.42	47.89	23.96	13.73	2.33	11.10
Sinkiang-28	Xindong22	15.91	46.03	26.32	11.75	1.56	17.94

Barak, S.; Mudgil, D.; Khatkar, B.S. Effect of Compositional Variation of Gluten Proteins and Rheological Characteristics of Wheat Flour on the Textural Quality of White Salted Noodles. International Journal of Food Properties 2014, 17, 731–740.

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