Effect of Bicarbonate Salts and Sequential Using of Frying Oil on Acrylamide and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Contents in Coated Fried Chicken Meat

Figures & data

TABLE 1 pH, total dry matter content, and cooking loss findings on coated and fried chicken meats

	n	pH	Total dry matter (%)	Cooking loss (%)
Treatment
Control	8	5.98^b ± 0.01	42.11^a ± 0.33	20.93^a ± 0.34
1 (NaHCO3)	32	7.18^a ± 0.27	42.63^a ± 0.38	20.83^a ± 0.19
2 (NH4HCO3)	32	7.13^a ± 0.25	41.98^a ± 0.34	20.93^a ± 0.19
Dose (g/100 g raw material)
0	24	5.98^c ± 0.01	42.11^a ± 0.18	20.93^a ± 0.19
1	16	7.34^b ± 0.04	42.39^a ± 0.69	20.86^a ± 0.25
2	16	7.63^a ± 0.04	42.87^a ± 0.27	20.87^a ± 0.33
3	16	7.67^a ± 0.06	41.84^a ± 0.68	20.85^a ± 0.28
The use of oil
1st	18		42.10^a ± 0.52	20.89^a ± 0.25
2nd	18		42.40^a ± 0.46	21.08^a ± 0.25
3rd	18		42.02^a ± 0.43	20.50^a ± 0.21
4th	18		42.60^a ± 0.46	21.05^a ± 0.28

Control: samples without bicarbonate salt; 1: samples containing sodium bicarbonate; 2: samples containing ammonium bicarbonate; 0, 1, 2, and 3%: The ratio of bicarbonate salts in samples; 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th: The number of frying oil use;

^a,b,cMeans with different online letters (a–c) within the column of pH indicating significant difference (p < 0.05).

TABLE 2 Color L*, a*, and b* values of coated and fried chicken meats

	n	L* (lightness)	a* (redness)	b* (yellowness)
Treatment
Control	8	45.92^a ± 1.54	14.05^c ± 0.59	32.96^c ± 0.66
1 (NaHCO3)	32	44.41^a ± 0.82	16.03^b ± 0.33	34.21^b ± 0.37
2 (NH4HCO3)	32	46.96^a ± 0.52	16.96^a ± 0.38	35.58^a ± 0.37
Dose (g/100 g raw material)
0	24	45.92^a ± 0.85	14.05^b ± 0.33	32.96^b ± 0.36
1	16	45.10^a ± 1.21	17.60^a ± 0.42	35.33^a ± 0.60
2	16	45.19^a ± 0.95	17.35^a ± 0.36	35.66^a ± 0.42
3	16	46.53^a ± 0.89	16.98^a ± 0.28	35.64^a ± 0.44
The use of oil
1st	18	47.86^a ± 1.33	14.94^b ± 0.64	33.49^b ± 0.72
2nd	18	44.29^b ± 0.70	16.89^a ± 0.36	34.81^a ± 0.49
3rd	18	45.51^ab ± 0.75	16.49^a ± 0.37	34.90^a ± 0.42
4th	18	45.19^b ± 0.78	16.58^a ± 0.51	35.52^a ± 0.32

Control: samples without bicarbonate salt; 1: samples containing sodium bicarbonate; 2: samples containing ammonium bicarbonate; 0, 1, 2, and 3%: The ratio of bicarbonate salts in samples; 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th: The number of frying oil use;

^a,b,cMeans with different online letters (a–c) within the columns of color L*, a*, and b* values indicating significant difference (p < 0.05).

TABLE 3 HMF findings on coated and fried chicken meats

	n	HMF content (mg/kg)
Treatment
Control	8	11.11^c ± 1.65
1 (NaHCO3)	32	17.29^b ± 2.05
2 (NH4HCO3)	32	23.66^a ± 2.51
Dose (g/100 g raw material)
		1 (NaHCO3), n = 32	2 (NH4HCO3), n = 32
0	8	11.11^d ± 1.65	11.11^d ± 1.65
1	8	14.48^c ± 2.87	22.99^c ± 4.26
2	8	20.10^b ± 4.61	28.40^b ± 5.15
3	8	23.45^a ± 5.39	32.14^a ± 5.31
The use of oil
		1 (NaHCO3), n = 32	2 (NH4HCO3), n = 32
1st	8	7.57^d ± 0.81	11.84^d ± 1.38
2nd	8	11.78^c ± 0.72	16.42^c ± 2.01
3rd	8	17.12^b ± 1.72	26.74^b ± 3.83
4th	8	32.67^a ± 4.31	39.64^a ± 5.07

Control: samples without bicarbonate salt; 1: samples containing sodium bicarbonate; 2: samples containing ammonium bicarbonate; 0, 1, 2, and 3%: The ratio of bicarbonate salts in samples; 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th: The number of frying oil use;

^a,b,cMeans with different online letters (a–c) within the columns of HMF content indicating significant difference (p < 0.05).

TABLE 4 Acrylamide content findings on coated and fried chicken meats

	n	Acrylamide (µg/kg)
Treatment
Control	8	63.83^a ± 3.73
1 (NaHCO3)	32	39.84^b ± 2.76
2 (NH4HCO3)	32	63.75^a ± 1.93
Dose (g/100 g raw material)
		1 (NaHCO3), n = 32	2 (NH4HCO3), n = 32
0	8	63.83^a ± 3.73	63.83^a ± 3.73
1	8	29.51^b ± 2.76	62.56^a ± 4.77
2	8	32.96^b ± 1.57	60.18^a ± 2.81
3	8	33.05^b ± 0.73	68.42^a ± 4.03
The use of oil
		1 (NaHCO3), n = 32	2 (NH4HCO3), n = 32
1st	8	33.58^c ± 4.00	52.25^c ± 2.87
2nd	8	38.59^b ± 4.76	60.95^b ± 1.37
3rd	8	43.78^a ± 5.84	67.69^ab ± 1.84
4th	8	43.41^a ± 7.27	74.10^a ± 3.85

Control: samples without bicarbonate salt; 1: samples containing sodium bicarbonate; 2: samples containing ammonium bicarbonate; 0, 1, 2, and 3%: The ratio of bicarbonate salts in samples; 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th: The number of frying oil use;

^a,b,cMeans with different online letters (a–c) within the columns of acrylamide content indicating significant difference (p < 0.05).

FIGURE 1 A: GC–MS chromatogram and B: mass spectra of (¹³C₃) acrylamide.

FIGURE 2 The sample chromatograms of samples containing sodium bicarbonate.

FIGURE 3 The sample chromatogram of samples containing ammonium bicarbonate.