Glycine Betaine-Mediated Protection of Peas (Pisum sativum L.) During Blanching and Frozen Storage

Figures & data

TABLE 1 Fifteen parameters essential to the perceived quality of green peas

Sensory parameters	Score
Aroma	0 = not intense, 10 = extremely intense
Size	0 = not large, 10 = extremely large
Shrivelling (wrinkling)	0 = not shrivelling, 10 = extremely shrivelling
Uniformity of color	0 = not uniform, 10 = extremely uniform
Green	0 = light green, 10 = dark green
Yellow	0 = light yellow, 10 = dark yellow
Brightness	0 = grey color, 10 = bright yellow or green
Sweetness	0 = not sweet, 10 = extremely sweet
Saltiness	0 = not salty, 10 = extremely salty
Strength of pea flavor	0 = not there, 10 = extremely intense
Off flavor	0 = not there, 10 = extremely intense
Skin toughness	0 = extremely soft, 10 = extremely hard
Hardness	0 = extremely hard, 10 = extremely soft
Juiciness	0 = not juicy, 10 = extremely juicy
Mealiness	0 = not mealy, 10 = extremely mealy

Adapted from Nleya et al.^[32] and Sanford et al.^[35]

TABLE 2 Evaluation of green peas after blanching and rapid cooling in 5 to 20% (w/v) GB solution, in comparison to raw, tap water blanched, and osmo-dehydrated peas^#

Test type	Vitamin C (mg/100 g)	Percent AIS	Retention of POD activity (% of raw peas)	Retention of LOX activity (% of raw peas)	Green color (a*)	Pea skin texture (g)	Pea cotyledon texture (g)
Raw	37.87 ± 1.32^a	20.80 ± 2.31^a	100	100	–9.64 ± 1.71^b	700.20 ± 60.59^a	355.90 ± 69.04^a
Control	17.67 ± 0.67^d	18.17 ± 1.76^ab	1.53 ± 0.26^c	0.63 ± 0.04^c	–13.41 ± 1.28^a	351.70 ± 42.65^b	117.67 ± 51.25^c
5% (w/v) GB	24.22 ± 1.16^c	17.43 ± 1.40^b	3.03 ± 0.27^b	1.57 ± 0.28^b	–13.78 ± 1.00^a	324.97 ± 62.14^b	126.30 ± 14.90^c
10% (w/v) GB	29.79 ± 0.67^b	15.90 ± 1.15^b	7.09 ± 0.63^a	3.34 ± 0.37^a	–13.53 ± 0.98^a	358.37 ± 61.55^b	270.00 ± 56.07^ab
15% (w/v) GB	28.77 ± 1.55^b	16.47 ± 1.36^b	7.14 ± 0.50^a	3.46 ± 0.34^a	–13.74 ± 1.80^a	359.20 ± 57.69^b	191.50 ± 28.78^bc
20% (w/v) GB	29.65 ± 0.67^b	16.90 ± 0.68^b	7.30 ± 0.67^a	3.53 ± 0.40^a	–13.87 ± 1.54^a	325.40 ± 65.98^b	180.10 ± 54.45^bc
Osmo-dehydrated	18.35 ± 1.35^d	15.97 ± 2.05^b	3.26 ± 0.76^b	0.77 ± 0.05^c	–14.23 ± 0.61^a	645.40 ± 52.46^a	312.57 ± 75.90^a

^#mean values with the same letter superscript in columns do not differ significantly at p < 0.05.

Control: blanching peas in tap water; GB: glycine betaine; osmo-dehydrated: dehydrofrozen green peas prepared in 56.5% (w/v) of 2:1 maltitol and trehalose.

TABLE 3 Effect of blanching treatment and rapid cooling in GB solution on the sensory evaluation of frozen peas during 90-days storage^#

	Aroma	Size	Shrivelling	Uniformity of color	Green	Yellow	Brightness	Sweetness	Saltiness	Strength of pea flavor	Off flavour	Skin toughness	Hardness	Juiciness	Mealiness
								Day 0
Raw	4.71 ± 1.11^a	6.64 ± 0.85^a	1.00 ± 0.58^b	5.83 ± 2.04^a	4.07 ± 1.48^b	4.93 ± 2.09^a	6.79 ± 1.58^a	4.93 ± 1.24^b	1.86 ± 0.83^a	8.57 ± 0.79^a	1.86 ± 0.38^a	7.36 ± 2.59^a	6.64 ± 2.14^ab	4.07 ± 1.69^a	6.57 ± 1.27^a
Control	6.43 ± 1.83^a	6.29 ± 0.76^a	1.24 ± 0.46^b	4.64 ± 1.60^a	6.21 ± 0.91^a	0.64 ± 0.24^b	5.57 ± 1.62^a	6.36 ± 0.94^b	1.57 ± 0.53^a	4.64 ± 1.31^bc	0.00 ± 0.00^c	5.36 ± 1.75^a	5.21 ± 1.22^b	4.93 ± 1.10^a	5.21 ± 2.00^a
5% (w/v) GB	5.71 ± 1.47^a	6.64 ± 1.11^a	1.31 ± 0.44^b	5.32 ± 1.80^a	5.85 ± 0.90^a	1.57 ± 0.53^b	5.50 ± 1.32^a	5.14 ± 1.46^b	1.14 ± 0.38^a	5.00 ± 1.41^bc	0.76 ± 0.22^bc	5.43 ± 1.40^a	4.64 ± 0.94^b	5.36 ± 1.11^a	5.76 ± 1.07^a
10% (w/v) GB	5.79 ± 0.99^a	6.00 ± 1.19^a	1.43 ± 0.53^b	6.00 ± 0.82^a	6.07 ± 1.10^a	1.63 ± 0.84^b	5.86 ± 0.90^a	5.79 ± 0.91^b	1.27 ± 0.22^a	4.00 ± 0.82^bc	0.86 ± 0.38^b	5.21 ± 1.47^a	5.32 ± 1.07^b	5.50 ± 0.96^a	5.11 ± 1.68^a
15% (w/v) GB	6.29 ± 0.99^a	6.29 ± 1.11^a	1.14 ± 0.38^b	5.21 ± 1.15^a	6.14 ± 1.07^a	0.94 ± 0.63^b	5.64 ± 1.38^a	6.36 ± 1.97^b	1.29 ± 0.49^a	5.64 ± 1.18^b	1.14 ± 0.29^a	5.50 ± 0.56^a	4.86 ± 0.69^b	5.43 ± 1.62^a	5.36 ± 1.44^a
20% (w/v) GB	6.57 ± 1.51^a	6.79 ± 1.07^a	1.27 ± 0.23^b	5.86 ± 1.07^a	6.93 ± 0.84^a	1.29 ± 0.49^b	6.14 ± 1.46^a	6.43 ± 0.79^b	0.86 ± 0.38^ab	5.43 ± 0.79^bc	1.00 ± 0.58^b	5.07 ± 1.74^a	5.50 ± 1.19^b	6.29 ± 1.25^a	5.93 ± 1.43^a
Osmo-dehydrated	6.50 ± 1.50^a	6.93 ± 1.69^a	4.07 ± 1.02^a	6.64 ± 1.03^a	7.50 ± 0.50^a	1.43 ± 0.53^b	7.14 ± 1.07^a	8.79 ± 0.81^a	0.00 ± 0.00^b	3.57 ± 0.53^c	0.00 ± 0.00^c	5.27 ± 1.30^a	8.07 ± 0.73^a	5.64 ± 1.93^a	6.00 ± 1.55^a
								Day 30
Control	7.67 ± 1.00^a	7.56 ± 0.88^a	2.33 ± 1.41^bc	5.78 ± 2.22^a	6.89 ± 0.93^a	3.11 ± 0.78^ab	7.56 ± 1.01^a	5.33 ± 1.66^b	1.67 ± 0.71^ab	6.44 ± 1.81^a	1.33 ± 0.50^b	6.67 ± 1.66^b	6.78 ± 1.20^a	5.83 ± 1.27^a	6.17 ± 2.62^a
5% (w/v) GB	5.44 ± 1.42^ab	6.44 ± 1.23^a	3.67 ± 0.50^b	6.33 ± 1.66^a	6.22 ± 1.20^a	3.06 ± 1.29^ab	7.00 ± 1.00^a	5.78 ± 1.20^ab	1.56 ± 1.01^ab	6.00 ± 1.66^a	1.11 ± 0.33^b	6.33 ± 1.80^b	4.78 ± 1.30^a	6.22 ± 1.09	6.33 ± 2.50^a
10% (w/v) GB	5.56 ± 2.01^ab	6.11 ± 1.36^a	2.22 ± 0.44^bc	6.27 ± 1.50^a	6.11 ± 1.45^a	1.22 ± 0.44^c	6.44 ± 1.33^a	6.11 ± 1.54^ab	0.56 ± 0.30^bc	5.89 ± 1.36^a	0.67 ± 0.50^b	5.67 ± 1.73^b	5.44 ± 0.88^a	6.56 ± 1.42^a	6.33 ± 1.32^a
15% (w/v) GB	6.67 ± 1.58^ab	5.78 ± 1.99^a	1.89 ± 0.33^c	6.11 ± 2.20^a	6.00 ± 2.24^a	2.00 ± 0.71^bc	6.56 ± 1.33^a	5.78 ± 2.11^ab	2.00 ± 1.00^a	6.11 ± 1.54^a	0.56 ± 0.53^b	6.22 ± 1.56^b	5.78 ± 1.48^a	6.44 ± 1.33^a	6.00 ± 2.18^a
20% (w/v) GB	6.33 ± 1.87^ab	6.23 ± 1.21^a	1.56 ± 0.53^c	6.38 ± 1.22^a	6.44 ± 1.13^a	2.89 ± 0.78^ab	6.11 ± 1.36^a	6.00 ± 0.71^ab	1.11 ± 0.33^abc	6.89 ± 0.93^a	0.57 ± 0.55^b	5.67 ± 1.22^b	6.00 ± 1.73^a	6.11 ± 1.45^a	5.33 ± 1.80^a
Osmo-dehydrated	3.78 ± 0.97^b	5.56 ± 2.07^a	5.22 ± 1.09^a	6.22 ± 1.79^a	6.89 ± 1.27^a	3.89 ± 1.05^a	6.11 ± 1.83^a	8.33 ± 0.50^a	0.00 ± 0.00^c	5.56 ± 1.24^a	2.69 ± 0.48^a	5.22 ± 1.64^a	8.22 ± 0.97^a	6.67 ± 1.87^a	6.33 ± 1.32^a
								Day 60
Control	5.11 ± 1.54^ab	5.44 ± 0.88^a	5.89 ± 1.54 ^a	5.11 ± 1.36 ^a	5.22 ± 0.83^a	4.67 ± 1.80^a	5.44 ± 1.67^a	4.67 ± 1.73^b	2.56 ± 1.13^a	6.11 ± 1.36^a	3.22 ± 1.48^a	5.33 ± 1.50^b	5.00 ± 1.87^b	4.00 ± 1.50^a	5.33 ± 1.50^a
5% (w/v) GB	5.78 ± 1.99^ab	5.67 ± 1.32^a	5.11 ± 1.83 ^a	5.33 ± 1.58 ^a	5.33 ± 1.58^a	2.56 ± 0.53^b	6.00 ± 1.87^a	5.11 ± 1.45^b	2.33 ± 0.71^a	6.00 ± 1.73^a	3.22 ± 1.20^a	5.33 ± 1.12^b	4.78 ± 1.92^b	3.89 ± 1.54^a	5.22 ± 1.86^a
10% (w/v) GB	6.33 ± 1.12^a	6.22 ± 1.09^a	2.22 ± 0.83 ^b	6.22 ± 1.30 ^a	6.33 ± 1.12^a	1.89 ± 0.60^b	6.11 ± 1.54^a	5.22 ± 0.97^b	2.22 ± 0.67^a	6.22 ± 1.39^a	1.11 ± 0.33^b	5.89 ± 1.05^b	6.22 ± 0.97^b	5.00 ± 1.41^a	5.22 ± 1.56^a
15% (w/v) GB	5.89 ± 0.78^ab	6.44 ± 1.24^a	2.11 ± 0.33 ^b	6.33 ± 1.22 ^a	6.11 ± 1.54^a	1.56 ± 0.53^b	6.22 ± 1.39^a	6.22 ± 1.30^b	1.67 ± 0.50^ab	6.78 ± 0.83^a	1.11 ± 1.05^b	5.56 ± 0.73^b	5.56 ± 1.13^b	5.44 ± 1.74^a	5.22 ± 1.48^a
20% (w/v) GB	5.78 ± 0.97^ab	6.44 ± 0.88^a	2.22 ± 0.44 ^b	6.00 ± 1.00 ^a	6.56 ± 1.24^a	1.89 ± 0.78^b	6.44 ± 1.74^a	7.11 ± 1.54^ab	1.78 ± 0.97^ab	6.78 ± 0.83^a	0.89 ± 0.60^b	5.44 ± 1.42^b	5.00 ± 0.87^b	6.22 ± 1.39^a	7.11 ± 0.78^a
Osmo-dehydrated	3.67 ± 0.71^b	6.00 ± 1.50^a	6.89 ± 0.78 ^a	6.11 ± 1.54 ^a	6.11 ± 1.17^a	3.22 ± 0.44^ab	6.78 ± 1.39^a	9.00 ± 0.87^a	0.56 ± 0.53^b	5.11 ± 1.54^a	2.00 ± 0.50^ab	8.10 ± 1.32^a	8.33 ± 0.71^a	5.22 ± 2.64^a	6.56 ± 1.94^a
								Day 90
Control	4.89 ± 1.62^ab	5.67 ± 0.71^a	7.22 ± 0.97^a	5.33 ± 1.12^a	4.78 ± 0.44^a	4.89 ± 1.96^a	6.11 ± 1.62^a	4.00 ± 1.41^bc	2.67 ± 1.12^a	6.33 ± 1.41^a	4.11 ± 1.05^a	4.67 ± 1.22^b	5.00 ± 1.87^b	3.89 ± 1.62 ^b	5.44 ± 1.51^a
5% (w/v) GB	6.11 ± 1.45^a	5.44 ± 1.24^a	5.11 ± 1.83^b	5.56 ± 1.81^a	5.11 ± 1.83^a	2.89 ± 0.33^b	5.33 ± 1.50^a	4.67 ± 1.12^bc	2.67 ± 0.89^a	5.56 ± 1.67^a	3.56 ± 1.01^ab	5.22 ± 1.20^b	4.33 ± 1.50^b	3.22 ± 1.20^ab	4.67 ± 1.32^a
10% (w/v) GB	6.56 ± 1.13^a	6.78 ± 0.44^a	2.33 ± 0.50^c	6.67 ± 1.12^a	6.56 ± 0.88^a	2.00 ± 0.50^b	5.67 ± 1.58^a	5.44 ± 0.73^bc	2.33 ± 0.50^a	6.56 ± 0.88^a	1.44 ± 0.73^c	5.56 ± 1.59^b	6.00 ± 1.00^b	5.22 ± 1.30^ab	5.78 ± 1.29^a
15% (w/v) GB	6.11 ± 0.60^a	6.67 ± 0.87^a	2.22 ± 0.44^c	6.67 ± 1.12^a	6.39 ± 1.27^a	1.78 ± 0.51^b	6.50 ± 0.94^a	5.94 ± 1.29^bc	1.89 ± 0.33^ab	6.33 ± 0.43^a	1.67 ± 0.71^c	5.00 ± 0.43^b	5.00 ± 0.97^b	4.94 ± 1.42^ab	5.83 ± 1.06^a
20% (w/v) GB	6.06 ± 0.88^a	6.33 ± 0.83^a	2.33 ± 0.43^c	6.28 ± 0.91^a	6.61 ± 1.22^a	2.06 ± 0.63^b	7.00 ± 0.50^a	6.67 ± 1.12^b	1.89 ± 0.78^ab	6.78 ± 0.67^a	1.11 ± 0.33^c	5.22 ± 1.20^b	4.78 ± 0.44^b	5.56 ± 1.33^ab	6.89 ± 0.33^a
Osmo-dehydrated	3.44 ± 0.53^b	5.83 ± 1.46^a	8.22 ± 0.97^a	6.56 ± 0.88^a	5.44 ± 1.01^a	3.56 ± 0.53^ab	6.56 ± 1.42^a	9.44 ± 0.73^a	0.67 ± 0.50^b	5.56 ± 1.01^a	2.33 ± 0.50^bc	7.56 ± 0.53^a	8.78 ± 0.83^a	6.44 ± 1.74^a	7.09 ± 1.90^a

^#mean values with the same letter superscripts in columns for 0, 30, 60, and 90 days do not differ significantly at p < 0.05.

Control: blanching peas in tap water; GB: glycine betaine; osmo-dehydrated: dehydrofrozen green peas prepared in 56.5% (w/v) of 2:1 maltitol and trehalose.

FIGURE 1 Effect of different blanching treatments on the deterioration of a: vitamin C; b: green coloration; c: pea skin texture; and d: pea cotyledon texture during 90 days of storage at –20°C.

FIGURE 2 Effect of different blanching treatments on a: AIS; b: percent retention of LOX activity; and c: percent retention of POD activity during 90 days of storage at –20°C.

FIGURE 3 Microscopic images (x100 magnification) of fresh raw pea and test pea samples after 90 day frozen storage at –20°C.

Nleya, K.M.; Minnaar, A.; de Kock, H.L. Relating Physico-Chemical Properties of Frozen Green Peas (Pisum sativum L.) to Sensory Quality: Sensory and Physico-Chemical Properties of Frozen Green Peas. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 2014, 94, 857–865.

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Sanford, K.A.; Gullett, E.A.; Roth, V.J. Optimization of the Sensory Properties of Frozen Peas by Principal Components Analysis and Multiple Regression. Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology Journal 1988, 21, 174–181.

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