Aromatic compounds and organoleptic features of fermented wolfberry wine: Effects of maceration time

Figures & data

Table 1. Ethanol content, residual sugar content, pH, titratable and volatile acidity, total and free SO₂ content, and polysaccharide content of wolfberry wines fermented under different maceration time.

Physicochemical feature	Maceration time
	SM	MM	LM
Ethanol (%, v/v)	9.92 ± 0.04c	10.94 ± 0.06a	10.56 ± 0.06b
Residual sugar (mg/L)	23.59 ± 0.06b	25.36 ± 0.09a	23.9 ± 0.2b
pH	3.72 ± 0.01b	4.00 ± 0.01a	3.59 ± 0.01c
Titratable acidity (g/L)	14.54 ± 0.09b	15.4 ± 0.2a	15.3 ± 0.1a
Volatile acidity (g/L)	0.71 ± 0.02b	0.88 ± 0.02a	0.74 ± 0.02b
Total SO2 (mg/L)	189 ± 0a	148 ± 6b	127 ± 2c
Free SO2 (mg/L)	11 ± 1a	11 ± 1a	11 ± 1a
Polysaccharides (mg/L)	1176 ± 7b	1464 ± 33a	1306 ± 66ab

Data are mean ± standard deviation of triplicate tests. Different letters in each row represent significant differences at p ≤ 0.05.

SM: Short-time maceration; MM: middle-time maceration; LM: long-time maceration.

Table 2. Retention indices and concentration of volatile compounds in wolfberry wine fermented under different maceration time.

Volatile compound	Retention indices	Standard	Maceration time
			SM	MM	LM
Esters
Acetate esters
Ethyl acetate (mg/L)	764.8	A	70 ± 3b	82.31 ± 2.30a	73.03 ± 0.01ab
Isobutyl acetate (µg/L)	1009.6	A	360 ± 19a	338.4 ± 6.99ab	304.22 ± 0.53b
Isopentyl acetate (mg/L)	1135.9	A	11.8 ± 0.6a	10.22 ± 0.41a	8.34 ± 0.10b
Hexyl acetate (µg/L)	1298.8	A	13.1 ± 1.0b	15.61 ± 0.18a	11.92 ± 0.02b
Heptyl acetate (µg/L)	1377.4	B	0.70 ± 0.05b	1.24 ± 0.08a	0.91 ± 0.08b
2-Ethyl-1-hexanol acetate (µg/L)	1387.2	B	9.0 ± 0.4b	9.3 ± 0.8b	19.2 ± 0.6a
Octyl acetate (µg/L)	1477	B	19 ± 2a	18 ± 1a	19 ± 4a
Trimethylene acetate (µg/L)	1740.3	B	210 ± 83a	290 ± 105a	181 ± 2a
Phenethyl acetate (µg/L)	1826.3	A	585 ± 11a	311 ± 23b	336 ± 15b
Total acetate esters (mg/L)			83 ± 4ab	94 ± 3a	82.2 ± 0.1b
Ethyl esters
Ethyl butanoate (µg/L)	1037.5	A	395 ± 24a	382 ± 7ab	327 ± 4b
Ethyl hexanoate (µg/L)	1244.4	A	618 ± 47a	451 ± 20b	424 ± 13b
Ethyl 3-hexenoate (µg/L)	1307.6	A	2.5 ± 0.2b	3.99 ± 0.08a	1.79 ± 0.05c
Ethyl enanthate (µg/L)	1337.6	A	2.9 ± 0.2b	5.0 ± 0.3a	2.5 ± 0.1b
Ethyl lactate (mg/L)	1346.8	A	2.4 ± 0.1a	3.2 ± 0.1a	3.4 ± 0.4a
Ethyl caprylate (mg/L)	1438.7	A	2.1 ± 0.1a	1.5 ± 0.1b	1.21 ± 0.06b
Ethyl mesitylacetate (µg/L)	1511.8	B	0.53 ± 0.02b	0.62 ± 0.04ab	0.70 ± 0.04a
Ethyl nonanoate (µg/L)	1539.5	A	7.1 ± 0.7b	12 ± 1a	5.56 ± 0.04b
Ethyl 2-hydroxy-4-methylpentanoate (µg/L)	1546.9	A	15.9 ± 0.6a	16.6 ± 0.8a	16 ± 1a
Ethyl caprate (mg/L)	1642.8	A	2.64 ± 0.09a	2.4 ± 0.2a	1.40 ± 0.08b
Diethyl succinate (µg/L)	1680.1	A	180 ± 13ab	210 ± 3a	171 ± 9b
Ethyl 9-decenoate (µg/L)	1694.3	B	49.2 ± 0.2a	14 ± 1c	31.9 ± 0.5b
Mesotol (µg/L)	1824.6	A	2.0 ± 0.5ab	3.0 ± 0.2a	1 ± 0b
Ethyl laurate (µg/L)	1847.5	A	478.0 ± 0.5a	392 ± 43a	274 ± 19b
Ethyl dihydrocinnamate (µg/L)	1895.6	B	1.37 ± 0.07b	1.8 ± 0.1a	1.25 ± 0.05b
Ethyl myristate (µg/L)	2053.2	B	73 ± 6a	57 ± 6ab	36 ± 5b
Ethyl cinnamate (µg/L)	2145.3	B	2.75 ± 0.08b	3.7 ± 0.2a	2.7 ± 0.2b
Ethyl hexadecanoate (µg/L)	2256.1	B	110 ± 3a	101 ± 9a	75 ± 3b
Total ethyl esters (mg/L)			9.1 ± 0.1a	8.7 ± 0.3ab	7.4 ± 0.6b
Other esters
Isobutyl hexanoate (µg/L)	1357.7	B	0.73 ± 0.04a	0.5 ± 0.1a	0.5 ± 0.1a
Caprylic acid methyl ester (µg/L)	1393.8	A	11.5 ± 0.8a	9.9 ± 0.6a	6.3 ± 0.2b
Isopentyl hexanoate (µg/L)	1462.3	A	10.6 ± 0.6a	8.4 ± 0.5b	7.4 ± 0.3b
Isobutyl octanoate (µg/L)	1554.6	B	4.5 ± 0.4a	4.1 ± 0.4a	3.3 ± 0.3a
Methyl caprate (µg/L)	1599	B	58 ± 3a	65 ± 5a	29 ± 1b
Isoamyl caprylate (µg/L)	1662.7	A	25.9 ± 0.5a	18 ± 2b	13.3 ± 0.8b
Benzoic ether (µg/L)	1677.4	B	2.03 ± 0.05b	2.9 ± 0.2a	1.93 ± 0.03b
Methyl 2-(pentyloxy)benzoate (µg/L)	1790.2	B	1.9 ± 0.1b	3.0 ± 0.1a	1.48 ± 0.09b
Isoamyl decanoate (µg/L)	1866.8	B	15.9 ± 0.2a	13 ± 2a	7.6 ± 0.6b
Propanoic acid, 2-methyl-,1-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2-methyl-1,3-propanediyl ester (µg/L)	1883.2	B	1.4 ± 0.7a	1.4 ± 0.5a	0.97 ± 0.03a
Nonanoic acid, 3-methylbutyl-2 ester (µg/L)	1905.7	B	3.4 ± 0.1a	3.7 ± 0.3a	4.02 ± 0.09a
Total other esters (µg/L)			136 ± 6a	130 ± 11a	76 ± 4b
Total ester (mg/L)			92 ± 4ab	102 ± 3a	89.7 ± 0.7b
Acids
1,2-Dimethyl-2-cyclopentene-1-carboxylic acid (µg/L)	1367.6	B	8.7 ± 0.6b	11.0 ± 0.1a	8.67 ± 0.05b
Acetic acid (µg/L)	1453.8	A	72 ± 7b	206 ± 2a	112 ± 26b
Butanoic acid (mg/L)	1630.4	A	1.25 ± 0.00c	2.2 ± 0.1a	1.74 ± 0.05b
α-Methylbutyric acid (mg/L)	1671.7	B	1.6 ± 0.2b	2.31 ± 0.01a	2.12 ± 0.02a
Octanoic acid (mg/L)	2062.1	A	16 ± 4a	14 ± 2a	12.0 ± 0.7a
Decanoic acid (mg/L)	2271.8	A	22 ± 7a	20 ± 4a	12.7 ± 0.8b
Total acids (mg/L)			41 ± 12a	39 ± 6a	29 ± 2a
Alcohols
2-Methyl-1-propanol (mg/L)	1104	A	36.34 ± 0.06c	39.40 ± 0.04b	42.5 ± 0.8a
1-Butanol (µg/L)	1158.1	A	834 ± 17b	1324 ± 8a	796 ± 18b
Isopentyl alcohol (mg/L)	1216	A	220 ± 6a	213 ± 3a	213 ± 5a
Pentyl alcohol (µg/L)	1255.5	B	14.2 ± 0.6b	22.2 ± 0.5a	14.8 ± 0.2b
2-Heptanol (µg/L)	1320	A	6.4 ± 0.4a	7 ± 1a	7.7 ± 0.4a
1-Hexanol (µg/L)	1352.5	A	40 ± 3c	77 ± 2a	63 ± 1b
Dowanol peat (µg/L)	1376.9	B	20 ± 3b	66.7 ± 0.1a	28 ± 6b
3-Hexen-1-ol (µg/L)	1384.7	A	22.4 ± 0.7b	137 ± 13a	15 ± 3b
1-Octen-3-ol (µg/L)	1448.6	A	3.2 ± 0.2b	7.6 ± 0.2a	3.54 ± 0.01b
2-Ethyl-1-hexanol (µg/L)	1488.8	A	1.9 ± 0.3b	3.3 ± 0.2a	4.1 ± 0.2a
2,3-Butanediol, [R-(R*,R*)]– (mg/L)	1538.9	B	324 ± 140a	948 ± 343a	458 ± 8a
1-Octanol (µg/L)	1557	A	17.37 ± 0.08a	18 ± 1a	14.1 ± 0.5b
2,3-Butanediol, [S-(R*,R*)]– (mg/L)	1574.9	A	121 ± 52a	247 ± 110a	119 ± 31a
trans-2-Octenol (µg/L)	1616	A	2.57 ± 0.08a	2.63 ± 0.08a	2.44 ± 0.03a
E-5-Decen-1-ol (µg/L)	1795.2	B	2.4 ± 1.0a	1.7 ± 0.2a	1.7 ± 0.1a
Benzyl alcohol (µg/L)	1883.4	A	198 ± 23b	560 ± 51a	311 ± 8b
Phenylethyl alcohol (mg/L)	1920.2	A	36 ± 7a	29 ± 4a	43 ± 1a
4-Tolylcarbinol (µg/L)	1981.6	B	3.1 ± 0.2a	2.5 ± 0.2a	1.8 ± 0.2b
Total alcohols (mg/L)			739 ± 194a	1478 ± 460a	876 ± 32a
Aldehydes
Nonanal (µg/L)	1399.2	A	0.7 ± 0.2ab	1.27 ± 0.01a	0.5 ± 0.2b
Furfural (µg/L)	1471.8	A	149 ± 13a	185 ± 16a	211 ± 24a
Decanal (µg/L)	1504.4	A	3 ± 1a	4.0 ± 0.9a	2.9 ± 0.5a
Safranal (µg/L)	1656.8	B	6.75 ± 0.07b	11.8 ± 0.7a	8.6 ± 0.5b
2-Butyl-2-octenal (µg/L)	1675.4	B	0.02 ± 0.00c	0.03 ± 0.00a	0.02 ± 0.00b
Total aldehydes (µg/L)			160 ± 12a	202 ± 17a	223 ± 24a
Ketones
2,2,6-Trimethylcyclohexanone (µg/L)	1325	B	nd	1.8 ± 0.7a	nd
6-Methyl-5-heptene-2-one (µg/L)	1344.7	A	4 ± 1b	12 ± 2a	6 ± 1ab
2-Undecanone (µg/L)	1603.7	B	1.5 ± 0.1ab	1.29 ± 0.08b	1.90 ± 0.06a
β-Cyclocitral (µg/L)	1630.9	B	4.4 ± 0.4c	8.0 ± 0.2a	5.8 ± 0.1b
Dihydropseudoionone (µg/L)	1861.4	A	1.03 ± 0.09b	2.9 ± 0.3a	4.1 ± 0.5a
2-Acetylpyrrole (µg/L)	1981.6	B	92 ± 21b	213 ± 36a	125 ± 5ab
(2,6,6-Trimethyl-2-hydroxycyclohexylidene) acetic acid lactone (µg/L)	2372.3	B	7 ± 1a	13 ± 4a	5.7 ± 0.5a
Total ketones (µg/L)			110 ± 23b	252 ± 43a	148 ± 5ab
Sulfur compounds
Methionol (mg/L)	1720.6	A	2.4 ± 0.6a	1.6 ± 0.3a	3.1 ± 0.5a
Aromatic compounds
Isodurene (µg/L)	1498.2	B	2.8 ± 0.2a	2.90 ± 0.08a	3.14 ± 0.06a
1,1,4,6-Tetramethylindane (µg/L)	1677.5	B	13.3 ± 0.5a	16 ± 1a	14.11 ± 0.01a
2,5-Diisopropyl-p-xylene (µg/L)	1694.1	B	53 ± 3a	40 ± 2b	49.9 ± 0.5a
Naphthalene (µg/L)	1756	A	3.40 ± 0.03a	3.6 ± 0.4a	3.30 ± 0.07a
2,5,8-Trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (µg/L)	1758.3	B	13 ± 2a	10.9 ± 0.9a	12.6 ± 0.3a
β-Methylnaphthalene (µg/L)	1870	B	9.82 ± 0.06a	11.7 ± 1.18a	11.6 ± 0.2a
α-Methylnaphthalene (µg/L)	1906.9	B	6.59 ± 0.03a	7.6 ± 0.8a	8.2 ± 0.3a
α-Calacorene (µg/L)	1931.9	B	11.8 ± 0.3ab	13 ± 1a	9.8 ± 0.3b
4-Ethylphenol (µg/L)	2182.8	A	9 ± 3a	6.4 ± 1.0a	4.8 ± 0.4a
4-Vinylguaiacol (µg/L)	2208.5	B	581 ± 95b	1207 ± 184a	465 ± 16b
2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol (µg/L)	2308.7	B	43 ± 2a	39 ± 2a	40 ± 2a
Coumaran (µg/L)	2403.1	B	509 ± 138a	852 ± 249a	346 ± 27a
Total aromatic compounds (mg/L)			1.3 ± 0.2ab	2.2 ± 0.4a	0.97 ± 0.05b
Terpernoids and norisoprenoids
Styrene (µg/L)	1269.8	A	117 ± 13b	161 ± 6a	147 ± 5ab
Ionene (µg/L)	1489.7	B	13.9 ± 0.4a	15.8 ± 1.2a	14.6 ± 0.5a
1-Oxaspiro[4.5]dec-6-ene, 2,6,10,10-tetr (µg/L)	1549.5	B	2.6 ± 0.2b	4.4 ± 0.3a	3.1 ± 0.1b
α-Cedrene (µg/L)	1625.9	B	0.39 ± 0.06a	0.34 ± 0.03a	0.38 ± 0.04a
β-Ionone (µg/L)	1951.7	B	3.13 ± 0.03b	8.6 ± 0.6a	6.8 ± 0.5a
2,6-Dimethyl-2,6-undecadien-10-ol (µg/L)	1955.5	B	0.18 ± 0.00c	0.83 ± 0.05a	0.53 ± 0.04b
Cedrol (µg/L)	2137.5	B	0.07 ± 0.01a	0.07 ± 0.00a	0.06 ± 0.00a
Total terpernoids and norisoprenoids (µg/L)			137 ± 12b	191 ± 8a	172 ± 6ab

Data are mean ± standard deviation of triplicate tests. Different letters in each row represent significant differences at p ≤ 0.05. “nd” indicated “not detected.” Retention indices are based on HP-innowax column. “A” and “B” in standard column indicate that compound is identified with and without reference standard, respectively.

Table 3. Odor threshold, and flavor note and OAVs of major volatile compounds in wolfberry wine fermented from different maceration time.

Compounds
Esters	Short-time maceration	Middle-time maceration	Long-time maceration	Odor threshold (μg/L)	Ref.^a	Descriptor	Ref.^a
Ethyl acetate	5.8 ± 0.4b	6.9 ± 0.3a	6.09 ± 0.00ab	7500	^[Citation1]	Pineapple, fruity, varnish	^[Citation6]
Isobutyl acetate	0.22 ± 0.01a	0.21 ± 0ab	0.19 ± 0.00b	1600	^[Citation2]	Banana, fruity, sweet	^[Citation7]
Ethyl butanoate	0.99 ± 0.06a	0.96 ± 0.02ab	0.82 ± 0.01b	400	^[Citation3]	Banana, pineapple, strawberry	^[Citation4]
Isopentyl acetate	74 ± 4a	64 ± 3a	52.1 ± 0.6b	160	^[Citation4]	Sweety, fruity	^[Citation3]
Ethyl hexanoate	7.7 ± 0.6a	5.6 ± 0.3b	5.3 ± 0.2b	154,636	^[Citation3]	Fruity, buttery	^[Citation3]
Ethyl caprylate	3.7 ± 0.2a	2.6 ± 0.2b	2.1 ± 0.1b	580	^[Citation3]	Sweet, floral, fruity, banana, pear	^[Citation3]
Ethyl caprate	13.2 ± 0.5a	12 ± 1a	7.0 ± 0.4b	200	^[Citation3]	Fruity, fatty	^[Citation3]
Phenethyl acetate	0.33 ± 0.01a	0.17 ± 0.01b	0.19 ± 0.01b	1800	^[Citation3]	Fruity, rose	^[Citation3]
Ethyl laurate	0.32 ± 0.00a	0.26 ± 0.03a	0.18 ± 0.01b	1500	^[Citation3]	Oily, fatty, fruity	^[Citation3]
Acids
Butanoic acid	7.22 ± 0.02c	12.8 ± 0.6a	10.0 ± 0.3b	173	^[Citation5]	Butterlike, cheesy, stinky, floral	^[Citation9]
Octanoic acid	31 ± 8a	28 ± 4a	24 ± 1a	500	^[Citation3]	Rancid, cheese, fatty acid	^[Citation3]
Decanoic acid	22 ± 7a	20 ± 4a	12.7 ± 0.8a	1000	^[Citation5]	Fatty, rancid	^[Citation3]
Alcohols
Isopentyl alcohol	3.7 ± 0.1a	3.54 ± 0.04a	3.54 ± 0.08a	60,000	^[Citation4]	Solvent, sweet, alcohol, nail polish	^[Citation3]
2,3-Butanediol, [R-(R*,R*)]–	2.2 ± 0.9a	6 ± 2a	3.05 ± 0.06a	150,000	^[Citation3]	Fruity, sweet, butter	^[Citation3]
2,3-Butanediol, [S-(R*,R*)]–	0.8 ± 0.4a	1.6 ± 0.7a	0.8 ± 0.2a	150,000	^[Citation6]	Fruity, sweet, butter	^[Citation3]
Phenylethyl alcohol	2.6 ± 0.5a	2.1 ± 0.3a	3.1 ± 0.1a	14,000	^[Citation3]	Roses, honey	^[Citation3]
Sulfur compounds
Methionol	2.4 ± 0.6a	1.6 ± 0.3a	3.1 ± 0.5a	1000	^[Citation3]	Cabbage, cooked potato, garlic	^[Citation3]
Aromatic compounds
4-Vinylguaiacol	0.53 ± 0.09b	1.1 ± 0.2a	0.42 ± 0.01b	1100	^[Citation5]	Phenolic, bitter, pharmaceutic spicy	^[Citation7]

Data are mean ± standard deviation of triplicate tests. Different letters in each row represent significant differences at p ≤ 0.05.

^aReference: ^[1]Guth (1997), ^[2]Tao and Li (2010), ^[3]Cai, Zhu, Wang, Lu, Lan, Reeves, et al. (2014), ^[4]Zhu, Zhu, Li, Zhang, Zhang, and Fan (2016), ^[5]Ferreira, López, and Cacho (2000), ^[6]Wu, Zhu, Cui, Duan, and Pan (2011), ^[7]Coelho, Vilanova, Genisheva, Oliveira, Teixeira, and Domingues (2015), ^[8]Shu, Chang, Teng, Zhen, Shu, Hong, et al. (2013).

Figure 1. Organoleptic features of wolfberry wine fermented from different maceration time. Organoleptic attributes were evaluated in terms of flavor complexity, flavor harmony, mouthfeel, wolfberry fruity notes, bitterness, color appearance, and overall acceptability. Different letters in each row represent significant differences at p ≤ 0.05.

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