Corn starch and egg white enriched gluten-free chickpea flour batters: Rheological and structural properties

Figures & data

Table 1. Codes of batter formulations made at different CF:CS ratios with and without added EW.

Code	100WF-EW	100WF	100CF-EW	100CF	75CF25CS-EW	75CF25CS	50CF50CS-EW	50CF50CS	25CF75CS-EW	25CF75CS
CF:CS ratio	0:0	0:0	100:0	100:0	75:25	75:25	50:50	50:50	25:75	25:75
Formulation
WF	100	100	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
CF	0	0	100	100	75	75	50	50	25	25
CS	0	0	0	0	25	25	50	50	75	75
EW	70	0	70	0	70	0	70	0	70	0
Whole egg	30	100	30	100	30	100	30	100	30	100
Milk	50	50	50	50	50	50	50	50	50	50
Oil	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75
Sucrose	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
Baking powder	8	8	8	8	8	8	8	8	8	8

WF: Wheat flour; CF: Chickpea flour; CS: corn starch; EW: egg white.

Table 2. Two-way mixed-analyses of variance on the oscillatory and steady rheological properties, and on the particle size statistics of gluten-free muffin batters at 25°C (main effects: egg white (EW) and chickpea flour:corn starch (CF:CS) ratio. F and P values.

Rheological property	EW (df = 1)		CF:CS ratio (df = 4)		EW × CF:CS ratio (df = 4)
	F value	P value	F value	P value	F value	P value
o max (Pa)	100	0.000	51.8	0.000	199	0.000
γmax (%)	55.2	0.000	5.76	0.003	61.8	0.000
G *max (Pa)	159	0.000	110	0.000	17.3	0.000
tan δ (-)	49.3	0.001	51.1	0.000	6.07	0.002
G ' (Pa)	268	0.000	279	0.000	38.1	0.000
G “ (Pa)	695	0.000	406	0.000	66.5	0.000
tan δ (-)	0.42	0.526	137	0.000	7.03	0.001
Hysteresis before shearing (Pa s–1)	1.82	0.188	69.1	0.000	15.9	0.000
Hysteresis after shearing (Pa s–1)	15.5	0.001	33.2	0.000	5.94	0.001
K (Pa sn)	68	0.000	74.5	0.000	11.6	0.000
n (-)	113	0.000	161	0.000	21.1	0.000
η 50 (Pa s)	106	0.000	78.5	0.000	14.7	0.000
η 0 (Pa s)	315	0.000	310	0.000	22.6	0.000
η f (Pa s)	1047	0.000	488	0.000	63.7	0.000
Viscosity recovery (%)	4.41	0.049	27.1	0.000	11.3	0.000
Particle size statistic	EW (df = 1)		CF:CS ratio (df = 2)		EW × CF:CS ratio (df = 2)
	F value	P value	F value	P value	F value	P value
d 32 (μ m)	196	0.000	50	0.000	17.9	0.000
d 43 (μ m)	2.36	0.151	172	0.000	14.9	0.001
d 10 (μ m)	27	0.000	47.8	0.000	6.93	0.010
d 50 (μ m)	2.8	0.120	24.7	0.000	3.77	0.054
d 90 (μ m)	7.53	0.018	297	0.000	13.3	0.001
span	45.4	0.000	784	0.000	19.5	0.000

WF: wheat flour; CF: chickpea flour; CS: corn starch; EW: egg white; σ_max: critical stress amplitude; γ_max: critical strain amplitude; G*_max: critical complex modulus; tan δ: critical loss tangent = G”/G’; G’: storage modulus at 1 rad s^–1; G”: loss modulus at 1 rad s^–1; tan δ at 1 rad s^–1; Hysteresis: difference between areas under the upstream (A_up) and downstream (A_down) data points from flow behaviour curves. K and n: consistency and flow behaviour indexes from power law model, respectively. η₅₀: viscosity at 50 s^–1 from flow behaviour curves after shearing at 300 s^–1 for 5 min; η_o, original apparent viscosity at the onset of the first stage from three-step shear rate test; η_f, final apparent viscosity at 660 s (after 600 s of recovery) from three-step shear rate test; Viscosity recovery (%) = (η_f × 100)/η₀.

d32: surface-weighted mean diameter; d43: volume-weighted mean diameter; d10, d50, and d90 are diameters at 10, 50, and 90% cumulative volume, respectively; dispersion index (span) = (d90—d10)/d50.

Figure 1. Effect of egg white (EW) and chickpea flour:corn starch (CF:CS) ratio on the limit values of linear viscoelastic (LVE) range of the gluten-free muffin batters as compared to gluten wheat flour (WF) muffin batter at 25°C; (a) σ_max: critical stress amplitude, (b) γ_max: critical strain amplitude. _a,bFor each rheological property and for the same CF:CS ratio mean values without the same letter between batters with and without incorporated EW are significantly different (P < 0.01). ^A–EFor each rheological property and the same EW level mean values without the same letter are significantly different (P < 0.01). Values are given as mean (n = 9) ± SD.

Figure 2. Elastic (G’) and viscous (G”) moduli as a function of frequency for the muffin batters formulated with the different selected CF:CS ratios at 25°C; (a) 0:0 ratio, (b) 100:0 ratio, (c) 75:25 ratio, (d) 50:50 ratio, and (e) 25:75 ratio (closed symbols: G’, opened symbols: G”). For all graphs, triangles represented batters with egg white (EW) and squares batters without EW. Values are given as mean (n = 9) ± SD.

Table 3. Effect of egg white (EW) and chickpea flour:corn starch (CF:CS) ratio on the mechanical spectra of the gluten-free muffin batters as compared to gluten wheat flour (WF) muffin batter at 25°C.

Code	EW	CF:CS ratio	G ' (Pa)	G “ (Pa)	tan δ (-)
100WF-EW	with	0:0	77.4 ± 3.76^Ab	38.6 ± 1.32^Ab	0.498 ± 0.010^Da
100CF-EW	with	100:0	73.1 ± 6.12^Aa	39.8 ± 2.54^Ab	0.546 ± 0.011^Cb
75CF25CS-EW	with	75:25	30.4 ± 2.10^Bb	20.5 ± 1.12^Bb	0.673 ± 0.010^Ba
50CF50CS-EW	with	50:50	22.8 ± 1.11B,^Cb	16.1 ± 0.778^Cb	0.707 ± 0.005^A,Bb
25CF75CS-EW	with	25:75	14.2 ± 0.918^Cb	10.2 ± 0.309^Db	0.720 ± 0.027^Aa
100WF	without	0:0	114 ± 7.02^Aa	56.5 ± 3.65^Aa	0.493 ± 0.003^Ca
100CF	without	100:0	84.6 ± 3.52^Ba	50.8 ± 1.08^Ba	0.603 ± 0.013^Ba
75CF25CS	without	75:25	96.4 ± 9.37^Ba	58.2 ± 1.94^Aa	0.606 ± 0.039^Ba
50CF50CS	without	50:50	36.7 ± 1.93^Ca	26.8 ± 1.42^Ca	0.730 ± 0.002^Aa
25CF75CS	without	25:75	26.3 ± 3.20^Ca	19.2 ± 1.32^Da	0.732 ± 0.040^Aa

Values are given as mean (n = 9) ± standard deviation.

_a,b for each oscillatory rheological property and for the same CF:CS ratio mean values between batters with and without incorporated EW are significantly different (P < 0.01).

^A–E for each oscillatory rheological property and for the same EW level mean values without the same letter are significantly different (P < 0.01).

WF: wheat flour; CF: chickpea flour; CS: corn starch; EW: egg white; G’: elastic modulus at 1 rad s^–1; G”: viscous modulus at 1 rad s^–1; tan δ: loss tangent = G”/G’ at 1 rad s^–1.

Figure 3. Flow behaviour for the muffin batters formulated with the different selected CF:CS ratios at 25°C; (a, f) 0:0 ratio, (b, g) 100:0 ratio, (c, h) 75:25 ratio, (d, i) 50:50 ratio, and (e, j) 25:75 ratio; (a-e) flow behaviour before shearing; (f-j) flow behaviour after shearing; (closed symbols: upstream data points, opened symbols: downstream data points). For all graphs, triangles represented batters with egg white (EW) and squares batters without EW. Values are given as mean (n = 9) ± SD.

Table 4. Effect of egg white (EW) and chickpea flour:corn starch (CF:CS) ratio on the steady rheological properties of the gluten-free muffin batters as compared to gluten wheat flour (WF) muffin batter at 25°C.

Code	EW	CF:CS ratio	Hysteresisbefore shearing(Pa s–1)	Hysteresisafter shearing(Pa s–1)	k(Pa s^n)	n (-)	η 50 (Pa s)	η o(Pa s)	η f(Pa s)	Viscosityrecovery(%)
100WF-EW	with	0:0	1743 ± 117^Ab	236 ± 30.5^Ba	7.81 ± 0.690^Bb	0.688 ± 0.010^Ca	2.32 ± 0.145^Bb	96.8 ± 6.60^Ab	67.8 ± 1.85^Ab	70.1 ± 3.70^Ca
100CF-EW	with	100:0	184 ± 406^Ba	961 ± 229^Aa	20.1 ± 2.20^Ab	0.578 ± 0.016^Da	3.91 ± 0.197^Ab	62.7 ± 3.09^Bb	55.5 ± 1.79^Bb	88.6 ± 2.09^A,Ba
75CF25CS-EW	with	75:25	509 ± 129^Ba	367 ± 57.7^Bb	4.56 ± 0.635^Cb	0.754 ± 0.028^Ba	1.75 ± 0.083^Cb	28.0 ± 1.07^Cb	26.7 ± 1.17^Cb	95.4 ± 7.37^Aa
50CF50CS-EW	with	50:50	616 ± 34.5^Ba	226 ± 22.9^Bb	2.32 ± 0.269^C,Db	0.857 ± 0.040^Aa	1.33 ± 0.056^Db	24.8 ± 2.36^Cb	20.2 ± 0.85^Db	81.8 ± 4.61^Ba
25CF75CS-EW	with	25:75	729 ± 433^Ba	152 ± 108^Ba	1.68 ± 0.336^Db	0.830 ± 0.028^Aa	0.753 ± 0.095^Eb	14.6 ± 0.36^Db	13.4 ± 0.67^Eb	91.7 ± 2.65^A,Bb
100WF	without	0:0	2410 ± 235^Aa	258 ± 31.9^Ba	10.7 ± 0.289^Ca	0.658 ± 0.004^Cb	2.81 ± 0.077^Ca	142.1 ± 5.93^Aa	85.3 ± 4.06^Aa	60.0 ± 2.37^Ca
100CF	without	100:0	-1559 ± 770^Cb	953 ± 416^Aa	40.7 ± 10.8^Aa	0.581 ± 0.012^Ea	7.87 ± 1.74^Aa	86.5 ± 3.20^Ba	73.6 ± 1.63^Ba	85.2 ± 2.65^Ba
75CF25CS	without	75:25	887 ± 261^Ba	1040 ± 107^Aa	21.5 ± 2.61^Ba	0.622 ± 0.005^Db	4.98 ± 0.520^Ba	92.1 ± 12.77^Ba	81.5 ± 1.64^A,Ba	89.5 ± 11.2^Ba
50CF50CS	without	50:50	548 ± 83.8^Ba	436 ± 19.4^Ba	7.18 ± 0.473^Ca	0.708 ± 0.010^Bb	2.33 ± 0.099^Ca	39.5 ± 0.87^Ca	45.2 ± 4.15^Ca	115 ± 12.8^Aa
25CF75CS	without	25:75	785 ± 59.3^Ba	257 ± 61.3^Ba	3.52 ± 0.529^Ca	0.792 ± 0.022^Aa	1.57 ± 0.103^Ca	36.7 ± 2.12^Ca	37.8 ± 2.86^Ca	103 ± 2.47^A,Ba

Values are given as mean (n = 9) ± standard deviation.

_a,bFor each steady rheological property and for the same CF:CS ratio mean values between batter with added EW and its without added EW counterpart are significantly different (P < 0.01).

^A–EFor each steady rheological property and for the same EW level, mean values without the same letter are significantly different (P < 0.01).

Hysteresis: difference between areas under the upstream (Aup) and downstream (Adown) data points from flow behaviour curves; K and n: consistency and flow behaviour indexes from power law model, respectively; η50: viscosity at 50 s^–1 from flow behaviour curves after shearing at 300 s^–1 for 5 min; ηo, original apparent viscosity at the onset of the first stage from three-step shear rate test; ηf, final apparent viscosity at 660 s (after 600 s of recovery) from three-step shear rate test. Viscosity recovery (%) = (ηf × 100)/η0.

Figure 4. Particle size distribution of the muffin batters formulated with different selected CF:CS ratios (0:0, 100:0, and 50:50) with and without incorporated egg white (EW).

Table 5. Effect of egg white (EW) and chickpea flour:corn starch (CF:CS) ratio on the particle size statistics of the gluten-free muffin batter as compared to control wheat flour (WF) batter at 25°C.

Code	Egg White (EW)	CF:CS ratio	d 32 (μ m)	d 43 (μ m)	d 10(μ m)	d 50 (μ m)	d 90 (μ m)	span
100WF-EW	with	0:0	4.2 ± 0.11^Aa	33.8 ± 0.80^Aa	1.6 ± 0.04^Aa	9.8 ± 0.61^Aa	117 ± 0.92^Aa	11.8 ± 0.41^Bb
100CF-EW	with	100:0	3.6 ± 0.14^Ba	39.7 ± 3.28^Aa	1.4 ± 0.03^Ba	8.0 ± 0.29^Ba	138 ± 15.1^Aa	16.8 ± 0.81^Ab
50CF50CS-EW	with	50:50	3.4 ± 0.06^Ba	14.8 ± 0.770^Ba	1.3 ± 0.02^Ca	6.8 ± 0.26^Ba	28.0 ± 0.26^Ba	3.93 ± 0.23^Cb
100WF	without	0:0	3.2 ± 0.07^Ab	28.1 ± 0.42^Bb	1.4 ± 0.05^Ab	8.7 ± 0.74^Aa	109 ± 11.4^Ba	11.9 ± 0.27^Ba
100CF	without	100:0	2.9 ± 0.11^Bb	51.8 ± 6.1^Aa	1.3 ± 0.07^Aa	8.9 ± 1.81^Aa	182 ± 13.5^Aa	21.4 ± 1.17^Aa
50CF50CS	without	50:50	3.1 ± 0.11^A,Ba	14.8 ± 4.05^Ca	1.3 ± 0.03^Aa	5.0 ± 0.31^Bb	28.0 ± 1.72^Ca	5.32 ± 0.30^Ca

Values are given as mean (n = 9) ± standard deviation.

_a,bFor each particle size statistic and for the same CF:CS ratio, mean values between batter with added EW and its without added EW counterpart are significantly different (P < 0.01).

^A–CFor each particle size statistic and for the same EW level, mean values without the same letter are significantly different (P < 0.01).

d32: Surface-weighted mean diameter; d43: volume-weighted mean diameter; d10, d50, and d90 are diameters at 10, 50, and 90% cumulative volume, respectively; dispersion index (span) = (d90—d10)/d50.

Table 6. Effect of type flour on functional properties.

Functional properties	WAC (mL g–1)	WHC (mL g–1)	EA (%)	ES (%)	FC (%)	FS (%)	LGC (%)
Flour
WF	2.05 ± 0.071^A,B	2.60 ± 0.000^C	53.4 ± 0.021^C	52.1 ± 0.602^C	40.0 ± 5.66^B	4.04 ± 0.008^B	8^B
CF	2.30 ± 0.141^A	3.05 ± 0.071^A	78.8 ± 0.287^A	77.7 ± 0.855^A	88.0 ± 2.83^A	15.0 ± 1.41^A	4^C
CS	1.90 ± 0.141^B	2.75 ± 0.071^B	59.2 ± 0.735^B	57.1 ± 0.346^B	-	-	12^A

Values are given as mean (n = 9) ± standard deviation.

^A–CFor each functional property mean values without the same letter are significantly different (P < 0.01).

WF: wheat flour; CF: chickpea flour; CS: corn starch; EW: egg white. WAC: water absorption capacity; WHC: water-holding capacity; EA: emulsifying activity; ES: emulsifying stability; FC: foaming capacity; FS: foaming stability; LGC: least gelation concentration.

Figure 5. Optical images of the muffin batters formulated with different selected CF:CS ratios (0:0, 100:0, and 50:50) with and without incorporated egg white (EW).