Total phenolics and antioxidants profiles of commonly consumed edible flowers in China

Figures & data

Table 1. Sample ID, Chinese names, English names, scientific names, moisture content, morphology, and sources of 65 edible flowers.

Sample ID	Chinese name	English name	Scientific name	Moisture content	Morphology	Source
1	Milan	Chulam	Aglaia odorata	17.42%		Commercial product
2	Hehuan	Albizzia flower	Albizzia julibrissin	8.15%		Commercial product
3	Taohua	Peach blossom	Amygdalus persica	36.54%		Collected in park
4	Baimeihua	Plum blossom	Armeniaca mume	15.70%		Commercial product
5	Yangtijia	Mountain ebony	Bauhinia variegata	19.33%		Commercial product
6	Mumianhua	Kapok	Bombax ceiba	23.46%		Collected in park
7	Jinzhanju	Pot marigold	Calendula officinalis	22.81%		Commercial product
8	Dujuanshancha	Camellia changii Ye	Camellia azalea	21.32%		Collected in park
9	Chahua	Camellia	Camellia japonica	31.36%		Collected in park
10	Lingxiaohua	Chinese trumpet creeper	Campsis grandiflora	13.33%		Commercial product
11	Meirenjiao	Canna	Canna edulis	34.19%		Commercial product
12	Lameihua	Carolina allspice	Chimonanthus praecox	12.38%		Collected in park
13	Yejuhua	Mother chrysanthemum	Chrysanthemum indicum	17.59%		Commercial product
14	Yejumi	Mother chrysanthemum buds	Chrysanthemum indicum	18.27%		Commercial product
15	Taigu	Chrysanthemum buds	Chrysanthemum lavandulifolium	18.24%		Commercial product
16	Hangbaiju	Hangzhou white chrysanthemum	Chrysanthemum morifolium ramat	16.13%		Commercial product
17	Daidaihua	Orange blossom	Citrus aurantium	26.84%		Commercial product
18	Tianshanxueju	Kunlun chrysanthemum	Coreopsis tinctoria	12.80%		Commercial product
19	Zhanghonghua	Saffron	Crocus sativus L.	10.32%		Collected in park
20	Qingguahua	Cucumber flower	Cucumis sativus Linn.	19.44%		Collected in park
21	Lanhua	Orchid	Cymbidium sinense	34.01%		Collected in park
22	Kangnaixin	Carnation	Dianthus caryophyllus	18.05%		Collected in park
23	Lvluohua	Green bonnie flower	Epipremnum aureum	34.59%		Commercial product
24	Pipahua	Loquat flower	Eriobotrya japonica	22.43%		Commercial product
25	Huanggongju	Anhui yellow chrysanthemum	Florists chrysanthemum	25.93%		Commercial product
26	Gongjuhua	Anhui white chrysanthemum	Florists chrysanthemum	14.42%		Commercial product
27	Qianrihong	Globe amaranth	Gomphrena globosa	18.45%		Commercial product
28	Hongqiaomei	Globe amaranth	Gomphrena globosa	13.74%		Commercial product
29	Jianghua	Garland-flower	Hedychium coronarium	23.53%		Collected in park
30	Qicaiju	Strawflower	Helichrysum bracteatum	11.32%		Commercial product
31	Huanghuacai	Day lily	Hemerocallis citrina	9.04%		Collected in park
32	Meiguiqie	Roselle	Hibiscus sabdariffa	5.45%		Commercial product
33	Liangtianchi	Pitaya flower	Hylocereus undatus	11.02%		Collected in park
34	Molihua	Jasmine	Jasminum sambac	12.31%		Commercial product
35	Xunyicao	Lavender	Lavandula angustifolia	18.87%		Commercial product
36	Baihehua	Lily	Lilium brownii	41.57%		Collected in park
37	Hongbaihe	Red lily	Lilium bulbiferum	20.00%		Collected in park
38	Jinyinhua	Honeysuckle	Lonicera japonica	12.96%		Commercial product
39	Yunlanhua	Magnolia flower	Magnolia denudate	21.43%		Collected in park
40	Huayulan	Southern magnolia	Magnolia grandiflora	22.32%		Collected in park
41	Pingguohua	Apple blossom	Malus pumila	10.83%		Collected in park
42	Haitanghua	Crab-apple	Malus spectabilis	31.40%		Collected in park
43	Yangganju	Chamomile	Matricaria recutita	23.89%		Commercial product
44	Ziluolan	Violet	Matthiola incana	24.30%		Commercial product
45	Bailanhua	Gardenia	Michelia alba	5.43%		Collected in park
46	Wuwangwo	Forget-me-not	Myosotis sylvatica	33.94%		Commercial product
47	Hehua	Lotus	Nelumbo nucifera	17.92%		Collected in park
48	Shuilian	Water lily	Nymphaea stellata	17.31%		Collected in park
49	Yuhudie	Jade butterfly	Oroxylum indicum	18.25%		Commercial product
50	Guihua	Osmanthus flower	Osmanthus fragrans	13.94%		Collected in park
51	Mudanhua	Peony	Paeonia suffruticosa	23.85%		Commercial product
52	Tianqihua	Sanchi flower	Panax pseudoginseng	32.98%		Commercial product
53	Huangjidanhua	Yellow frangipani	Plumeria rubra Acutifolia	19.44%		Collected in park
54	Hongjidanhua	Red frangipani	Plumeria rubra Linn. Sp.	23.53%		Collected in park
55	Xiakucao	Selfheal	Prunella vulgaris	20.19%		Collected in park
56	Shiliuhua	Pomegranate flower	Punica granatum	18.52%		Commercial product
57	Dujuanhua	Azalea	Rhododendron simsii planch	13.51%		Collected in park
58	Jinbianmeigui	Yunnan rose	Rosa centifolia	23.89%		Commercial product
59	Yuejihua	China rose	Rosa chinensis	24.35%		Commercial product
60	Faguomeigui	French rose	Rosa gallica	26.56%		Commercial product
61	Meiguiwang	Rose	Rosa rugosa	39.13%		Commercial product
62	Baimeigui	White rose	Rosa rugosa	18.10%		Commercial product
63	Luohanguohua	The fairy fruit flower	Siraitia grosvenorii	15.54%		Commercial product
64	Huaihua	Sophora flower	Sophora japonica L.	36.67%		Commercial product
65	Hanjinlian	Nasturtium	Tropaeolum majus	20.87%		Commercial product

Table 2. Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) of 65 flower samples .

Sample ID	English name	Scientific name	TPC (mg GAE/g)	TFC (mg CAE/g)
1	Chulam	Aglaia odorata	55.46 ± 2.82^u	3.85 ± 0.05^jk
2	Albizzia flower	Albizzia julibrissin	14.15 ± 0.35^ef	3.78 ± 0.06^jk
3	Peach blossom	Amygdalus persica	51.18 ± 3.05^t	16.9 ± 0.51^z
4	Plum blossom	Armeniaca mume	54.65 ± 2.45^u	28.5 ± 0.7^H
5	Mountain ebony	Bauhinia variegata	47.98 ± 3.52^rs	6.62 ± 0.23^n
6	Kapok	Bombax ceiba	21.63 ± 0.81^ij	5.76 ± 0.45^m
7	Pot marigold	Calendula officinalis	17.45 ± 0.52^gh	6.82 ± 0.32^no
8	Camellia changii Ye	Camellia azalea	61.46 ± 4.19^vw	8.76 ± 0.34^r
9	Camellia	Camellia japonica	21.95 ± 1.51^ij	4.36 ± 0.09^l
10	Chinese trumpet creeper	Campsis grandiflora	29.61 ± 1.91^l	9.76 ± 0.49^s
11	Canna	Canna edulis	18.01 ± 0.49^gh	6.67 ± 0.21^n
12	Carolina allspice	Chimonanthus praecox	33.89 ± 1.88^mno	6.93 ± 0.23^no
13	Mother chrysanthemum	Chrysanthemum indicum	35.98 ± 0.23°	20.45 ± 0.34^D
14	Mother chrysanthemum buds	Chrysanthemum indicum	55.04 ± 1.64^u	25.39 ± 0.52^G
15	Chrysanthemum buds	Chrysanthemum lavandulifolium	39.44 ± 2.32^p	19.19 ± 0.38^BC
16	Hangzhou white chrysanthemum	Chrysanthemum morifolium ramat	33.59 ± 1.28^mno	18.73 ± 0.35^AB
17	Orange blossom	Citrus aurantium	62.48 ± 5.8^vw	2.96 ± 0.1^hi
18	Kunlun chrysanthemum	Coreopsis tinctoria	92.93 ± 2.41^z	29.3 ± 0.78^H
19	Saffron	Crocus sativus L.	21.42 ± 1.4^ij	2.57 ± 0.05^fghi
20	Cucumber flower	Cucumis sativus Linn.	5.48 ± 0.18^a	0.67 ± 0.02^a
21	Orchid	Cymbidium sinense	23.29 ± 1.52^j	4.06 ± 0.02^kl
22	Carnation	Dianthus caryophyllus	30.83 ± 1.32^lm	2.45 ± 0.07^fg
23	Green bonnie flower	Epipremnum aureum	12.94 ± 0.28^de	1.62 ± 0.06^cd
24	Loquat flower	Eriobotrya japonica	21.58 ± 0.41^ij	9.6 ± 0.18^s
25	Anhui yellow chrysanthemum	Florists chrysanthemum	32.47 ± 3.14^lmn	15.15 ± 0.24^x
26	Anhui white chrysanthemum	Florists chrysanthemum	23.2 ± 0.54^j	11.25 ± 0.41^u
27	Globe amaranth	Gomphrena globosa	8.96 ± 0.23^bc	1.18 ± 0.05^bc
28	Globe amaranth	Gomphrena globosa	13.16 ± 0.17^de	2.25 ± 0.05^ef
29	Garland-flower	Hedychium coronarium	14.19 ± 0.48^ef	1.95 ± 0^de
30	Strawflower	Helichrysum bracteatum	72.38 ± 3.32^x	28.59 ± 0.41^H
31	Day lily	Hemerocallis citrina	8.66 ± 0.19^b	0.93 ± 0.03^ab
32	Roselle	Hibiscus sabdariffa	16.41 ± 0.53^fg	2.92 ± 0.04^ghi
33	Pitaya flower	Hylocereus undatus	9.66 ± 0.33^bc	0.77 ± 0.03^ab
34	Jasmine	Jasminum sambac	20.64 ± 0.71^hij	4.44 ± 0.33^l
35	Lavender	Lavandula angustifolia	50.8 ± 1.23^st	12.3 ± 0.29^v
36	Lily	Lilium brownii	34.75 ± 0.81^no	7.16 ± 0.05°^p
37	Red lily	Lilium bulbiferum	12.14 ± 0.3^cde	1.63 ± 0.03^cd
38	Honeysuckle	Lonicera japonica	87.48 ± 6.32^yz	52.51 ± 0.12^I
39	Magnolia flower	Magnolia denudate	19.6 ± 1.02^ghi	2.25 ± 0.01^ef
40	Southern magnolia	Magnolia grandiflora	10.35 ± 0.34^bcd	2.59 ± 0.07^fghi
41	Apple blossom	Malus pumila	60.58 ± 1.02^v	16.89 ± 0.31^z
42	Crab-apple	Malus spectabilis	8.23 ± 0.04^ab	1.56 ± 0.04^cd
43	Chamomile	Matricaria recutita	26.53 ± 1.97^k	10.22 ± 0.46^t
44	Violet	Matthiola incana	43.28 ± 1.82^q	7.48 ± 0.25^pq
45	Gardenia	Michelia alba	18.9 ± 1.06^ghi	5.56 ± 0.33^m
46	Forget-me-not	Myosotis sylvatica	64.02 ± 1.09^vw	11.06 ± 0.12^u
47	Lotus	Nelumbo nucifera	54.45 ± 2.28^u	7.79 ± 0.51^q
48	Water lily	Nymphaea stellata	69.57 ± 1.77^wx	8.82 ± 0.27^r
49	Jade butterfly	Oroxylum indicum	46 ± 1.19^qr	3 ± 0.09^i
50	Osmanthus flower	Osmanthus fragrans	134.05 ± 5.63^B	85.31 ± 0.74^J
51	Peony	Paeonia suffruticosa	240.03 ± 4.15^C	19.2 ± 0.99^BC
52	Sanchi flower	Panax pseudoginseng	7.66 ± 0.27^ab	1.44 ± 0.03^c
53	Yellow frangipani	Plumeria rubra Acutifolia	20.4 ± 1.19^hij	3.83 ± 0.03^jk
54	Red frangipani	Plumeria rubra Linn. Sp.	56.02 ± 3.68^u	15.69 ± 0.21^y
55	Selfheal	Prunella vulgaris	9.53 ± 0.3^bc	3.58 ± 0.07^j
56	Pomegranate flower	Punica granatum	245.84 ± 4.88^CD	24.98 ± 0.17^FG
57	Azalea	Rhododendron simsii planch	249.82 ± 1.75^D	20.02 ± 0.45^CD
58	Yunnan rose	Rosa centifolia	108.94 ± 4.67^A	10.91 ± 0.57^u
59	China rose	Rosa chinensis	284.8 ± 6.35^E	24.13 ± 0.11^EF
60	French rose	Rosa gallica	111.34 ± 8.39^A	13.43 ± 0.6^w
61	Rose	Rosa rugosa	312.21 ± 4.22^F	23.56 ± 0.47^E
62	White rose	Rosa rugosa	39.47 ± 0.65^p	2.51 ± 0.01^fgh
63	The fairy fruit flower	Siraitia grosvenorii	12.85 ± 0.18^de	2.85 ± 0.03^ghi
64	Sophora flower	Sophora japonica L.	84.23 ± 4.69^y	18.18 ± 0.41^A
65	Nasturtium	Tropaeolum majus	62.67 ± 4.38^vw	24.73 ± 1.06^FG

Data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation on dry weight basis (n = 3).

Since lowercase letter were not enough to represent the significant difference of 65 flower samples capital letters were also used.

Table 3. Antioxidant capacities (DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP values) of 65 edible flowers.

Sample ID	English name	Scientific name	DPPH (μmole TE/g)	ABTS (μmole TE/g)	FRAP (mmole of Fe^2+E/100g sample)
1	Chulam	Aglaia odorata	100.43 ± 4.23^t	167.49 ± 5.03^lm	20.22 ± 1.01^lm
2	Albizzia flower	Albizzia julibrissin	62.86 ± 1.77^no	109.45 ± 3.12^ij	15.92 ± 0.75^ij
3	Peach blossom	Amygdalus persica	170.79 ± 6.78^zA	191.71 ± 12.94^r	31.08 ± 0.43^r
4	Plum blossom	Armeniaca mume	174.55 ± 1.47^A	219.62 ± 13.64^v	49.92 ± 0.34^v
5	Mountain ebony	Bauhinia variegata	107.76 ± 5.28^u	273 ± 15.58°	22.27 ± 0.09°
6	Kapok	Bombax ceiba	65.93 ± 1.29°^p	120.56 ± 9.73^lm	19.96 ± 0.71^lm
7	Pot marigold	Calendula officinalis	38.21 ± 2.61^l	74.06 ± 0.63^k	18.21 ± 0.66^k
8	Camellia changii Ye	Camellia azalea	215.92 ± 1.31^D	304.7 ± 16.1^z	84.3 ± 0.78^z
9	Camellia	Camellia japonica	74.13 ± 3.91^q	165.89 ± 5.54^l	19.65 ± 1.32^l
10	Chinese trumpet creeper	Campsis grandiflora	96.37 ± 5.16^t	206.16 ± 7.13^q	27.09 ± 0.08^q
11	Canna	Canna edulis	75.67 ± 1.18^q	46.67 ± 0.67^p	25.42 ± 1.68^p
12	Carolina allspice	Chimonanthus praecox	89.68 ± 4.54^s	182.17 ± 8.44^t	35.39 ± 0.11^t
13	Mother chrysanthemum	Chrysanthemum indicum	163.12 ± 3.24^y	208.61 ± 4.73^p	24.82 ± 0.16^p
14	Mother chrysanthemum buds	Chrysanthemum indicum	199.41 ± 0.93^B	210.73 ± 3.83^u	46.57 ± 0.35^u
15	Chrysanthemum buds	Chrysanthemum lavandulifolium	155.4 ± 1.58^x	116.27 ± 3.41^t	35.59 ± 0.65^t
16	Hangzhou white chrysanthemum	Chrysanthemum morifolium ramat	162.32 ± 0.43^y	135.4 ± 7.01^no	21.54 ± 0.2^no
17	Orange blossom	Citrus aurantium	27.43 ± 2.57^jk	125.68 ± 4.78^ij	15.49 ± 1.23^ij
18	Kunlun chrysanthemum	Coreopsis tinctoria	343.6 ± 3.57^I	392.1 ± 6.5^B	123.46 ± 1.87^B
19	Saffron	Crocus sativus L.	15.36 ± 0.55^bcde	28.06 ± 0.44^h	13.33 ± 1.05^h
20	Cucumber flower	Cucumis sativus Linn.	8.24 ± 0.59^c	13.35 ± 0.48^a	4.28 ± 0.12^a
21	Orchid	Cymbidium sinense	13.15 ± 0.65^abc	48.4 ± 0.09^i	15.03 ± 0.94^i
22	Carnation	Dianthus caryophyllus	23.62 ± 0.44^ghijk	99.73 ± 2.92^e	9.77 ± 0.51^e
23	Green bonnie flower	Epipremnum aureum	24.47 ± 0.43^hijk	88.81 ± 5.21^bc	6.83 ± 0.23^bc
24	Loquat flower	Eriobotrya japonica	128.73 ± 6.59^vw	90.37 ± 3.96^j	16.3 ± 0.18^j
25	Anhui yellow chrysanthemum	Florists chrysanthemum	166.07 ± 1.45^yz	180.45 ± 6.8°	22.42 ± 0.41°
26	Anhui white chrysanthemum	Florists chrysanthemum	125.98 ± 2.84^v	106.34 ± 6.73^ij	15.38 ± 0.25^ij
27	Globe amaranth	Gomphrena globosa	11.42 ± 0.69^ab	22 ± 0.52^b	6.35 ± 0.1^b
28	Globe amaranth	Gomphrena globosa	22.66 ± 0.26^ghij	32.85 ± 0.59^e	9.53 ± 0.41^e
29	Garland-flower	Hedychium coronarium	20.09 ± 0.57^defgh	28.05 ± 0.67^cd	7.5 ± 0.13^cd
30	Strawflower	Helichrysum bracteatum	346.17 ± 2.16^I	336.14 ± 7.36^w	56.48 ± 0.83^w
31	Day lily	Hemerocallis citrina	11.44 ± 0.63^ab	40.56 ± 3.33^s	33.28 ± 0.29^s
32	Roselle	Hibiscus sabdariffa	37.54 ± 1.73^l	66.71 ± 3.23^ij	15.54 ± 0.51^ij
33	Pitaya flower	Hylocereus undatus	15.86 ± 0.35^bcdef	91.1 ± 2.49^a	4.17 ± 0.21^a
34	Jasmine	Jasminum sambac	68.82 ± 4.87^p	83.62 ± 5.53^bc	6.74 ± 0.04^bc
35	Lavender	Lavandula angustifolia	132.45 ± 4.05^w	140.83 ± 9.25^lm	20.2 ± 0.2^lm
36	Lily	Lilium brownii	56.08 ± 1.81^m	234.33 ± 11.76^p	24.63 ± 0.23^p
37	Red lily	Lilium bulbiferum	26.68 ± 0.52^ijk	33.14 ± 0.83^e	9.29 ± 0.92^e
38	Honeysuckle	Lonicera japonica	204.26 ± 1.79^BC	349.4 ± 5.43^x	70.1 ± 0.83^x
39	Magnolia flower	Magnolia denudate	19.83 ± 0.72^defgh	29.82 ± 0.27^d	7.89 ± 0.37^d
40	Southern magnolia	Magnolia grandiflora	19.55 ± 0.39^defgh	35.45 ± 0.94^f	11.19 ± 0.51^f
41	Apple blossom	Malus pumila	123.7 ± 3.77^v	230.97 ± 4.18^k	18.4 ± 0.28^k
42	Crab-apple	Malus spectabilis	18.31 ± 0.66^cdefg	25.85 ± 0.37^b	6.01 ± 0.13^b
43	Chamomile	Matricaria recutita	84.38 ± 7.2^r	128.57 ± 10.99°	22.35 ± 0.26°
44	Violet	Matthiola incana	81.78 ± 6.95^r	74.2 ± 2.23^h	13.3 ± 0.13^h
45	Gardenia	Michelia alba	58.22 ± 5.57^mn	111.54 ± 7.47^ij	15.51 ± 1.05^ij
46	Forget-me-not	Myosotis sylvatica	460.78 ± 1.12^O	260.94 ± 0.58^z	83.89 ± 4.6^z
47	Lotus	Nelumbo nucifera	273.4 ± 9.36^G	247.6 ± 8.54^r	30.8 ± 0.6^r
48	Water lily	Nymphaea stellata	382.52 ± 1.42^L	442.36 ± 3.45^y	73.58 ± 0.58^y
49	Jade butterfly	Oroxylum indicum	290.98 ± 9.33^H	141.71 ± 7.99^mn	20.98 ± 0.46^mn
50	Osmanthus flower	Osmanthus fragrans	364.62 ± 2.59^J	430.44 ± 5.74^A	119.56 ± 1.29^A
51	Peony	Paeonia suffruticosa	411.47 ± 3.79^M	859.3 ± 3.72^F	189.28 ± 2^F
52	Sanchi flower	Panax pseudoginseng	15.18 ± 0.63^bcd	17 ± 0.41^a	4.41 ± 0.3^a
53	Yellow frangipani	Plumeria rubra Acutifolia	28.59 ± 0.48^k	117.97 ± 9.18^gh	12.66 ± 0.47^gh
54	Red frangipani	Plumeria rubra Linn. Sp.	153.33 ± 4.99^x	169.47 ± 12.16^s	32.96 ± 0.58^s
55	Selfheal	Prunella vulgaris	21.39 ± 0.21^fghi	30.97 ± 0.69^g	12.23 ± 0.54^g
56	Pomegranate flower	Punica granatum	374.4 ± 3^K	460.32 ± 3.55^C	127.45 ± 0.95^C
57	Azalea	Rhododendron simsii planch	368.36 ± 1.34^JK	764.94 ± 2.18^G	222.58 ± 1.18^G
58	Yunnan rose	Rosa centifolia	422.58 ± 5.05^N	495.39 ± 5.05^E	154.28 ± 0.87^E
59	China rose	Rosa chinensis	414.46 ± 5.66^M	309.36 ± 17.37^I	362.02 ± 3.01^I
60	French rose	Rosa gallica	243.34 ± 2.07^E	530.47 ± 8.57^C	129.17 ± 2.06^C
61	Rose	Rosa rugosa	521.99 ± 2.99^P	1036.75 ± 8.82^H	265.66 ± 3.04^H
62	White rose	Rosa rugosa	269.94 ± 2.32^G	238.75 ± 6.09^t	36.3 ± 0.37^t
63	The fairy fruit flower	Siraitia grosvenorii	21.03 ± 0.96^efghi	141.11 ± 13.26^h	13.41 ± 0.89^h
64	Sophora flower	Sophora japonica L.	262.61 ± 1.1^F	288.78 ± 11.21^D	136.39 ± 1.5^D
65	Nasturtium	Tropaeolum majus	206.15 ± 0.87^C	207.68 ± 9.14^z	83.78 ± 0.34^z

Data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation on dry weight basis (n = 3).

As the lowercase letters (26 letters) were not enough to represent the significant difference of 65 flower samples in the statistical analysis capital letters were also used.

Figure 1. Correlations between total phenolic contents and DPPH values (A), total phenolic contents and ABTS (B), total phenolic contents and FRAP (C), total flavonoid contents and DPPH values (D), total flavonoid contents and ABTS (E), and total flavonoid contents and FRAP (F).