Nutritional value and flavor of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) muscle as affected by cooking methods

Figures & data

Table 1. Proximate composition (g/100g) of turbot muscle cooked by different methods.

Total weight (g/100g)	Raw	Fry	Bake	Microwave	BIVSB	Steam
Moisture	78.68 ± 1.32^c	62.44 ± 1.67^a	70.02 ± 1.04^b	75.94 ± 0.79^c	77.53 ± 0.25^c	77.37 ± 0.51^c
Protein	18.49 ± 0.43^b	27.62 ± 0.66^a	27.09 ± 0.07^c	21.48 ± 0.09^c	20.39 ± 0.02^c	20.28 ± 0.21^c
Lipids	1.15 ± 0.21^c	8.57 ± 0.78^d	0.81 ± 0.45^b	0.75 ± 0.16^b	0.31 ± 0.05^a	0.85 ± 0.23^c
Ash	1.18 ± 0.07^c	1.10 ± 0.06^a	1.26 ± 0.07^b	1.09 ± 0.14^b	0.78 ± 0.02^a	1.12 ± 0.10^b
Carbohydrate	0.42 ± 0.02^b	0.63 ± 0.02^a	0.59 ± 0.02^b	0.48 ± 0.01^b	0.44 ± 0.02^b	0.45 ± 0.04^b

BIVSB, boiling inside vacuum-sealed bag cooking method.

Each value is expressed as means ± SD (n = 3).

Values in the same row followed by different superscript letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).

Table 2. Fatty acids composition relative content (%) of turbot muscle cooked by different methods.

Fatty acid	Fresh	Bake	Microwave	BIVSB	Steam	Fry
14:0	4.50 ± 0.09^d	2.88 ± 0.69^bc	2.55 ± 0.30^b	2.35 ± 0.80^b	3.57 ± 0.42^c	0.26 ± 0.05^a
15:0	0.60 ± 0.01^c	0.44 ± 0.07^b	0.43 ± 0.04^b	0.45 ± 0.07^b	0.52 ± 0.05^bc	0.04 ± 0.01^a
16:1n-7	8.63 ± 0.51^c	6.01 ± 1.03^b	5.23 ± 0.31^b	4.97 ± 1.35^b	6.78 ± 0.37^b	0.48 ± 0.07^a
16:0	18.05 ± 1.91^b	20.83 ± 1.23^b	20.92 ± 3.28^b	17.49 ± 2.51^b	19.37 ± 0.32^b	13.28 ± 0.97^a
17:1n-7	0.58 ± 0.04^d	0.48 ± 0.05^c	–	–	0.53 ± 0.03^cd	0.16 ± 0.02^b
17:0	0.49 ± 0.04^d	0.4 ± 0.00^c	–	–	0.41 ± 0.01^c	0.14 ± 0.01^b
18:4n-3	2.97 ± 0.07^d	–	1.56 ± 0.15^b	–	2.04 ± 0.17^c	–
18:2n-6	3.10 ± 0.36^a	2.99 ± 0.64^a	3.21 ± 0.91^a	4.52 ± 1.46^a	2.92 ± 0.47^a	55.02 ± 0.89^b
18:1n-7	18.03 ± 0.27^a	19.01 ± 1.09^a	17.83 ± 0.70^a	19.18 ± 0.99^a	18.27 ± 0.49^a	21.68 ± 1.89^b
18:0	2.91 ± 0.31^a	4.27 ± 0.37^b	4.30 ± 0.34^b	4.34 ± 0.53^b	3.74 ± 0.19^b	5.48 ± 0.38^c
20:5n-3	8.23 ± 0.73^b	7.33 ± 0.22^b	6.90 ± 0.61^b	7.98 ± 1.43^b	7.74 ± 0.21^b	0.37 ± 0.06^a
20:4n-3	1.45 ± 0.08^b	–	–	–	1.21 ± 0.07^a	–
20:1n-9	4.52 ± 0.33^c	3.65 ± 0.10^b	3.90 ± 0.44^bc	4.10 ± 0.37^bc	4.37 ± 0.10^c	0.53 ± 0.05^a
20:0	–	–	–	–	–	0.34 ± 0.02
22:6n-3	20.37 ± 2.64^b	25.35 ± 2.06^bcd	26.63 ± 2.80^cd	28.40 ± 3.35^d	22.06 ± 1.13^bc	1.57 ± 0.28^a
22:5n-3	4.13 ± 0.47^b	4.17 ± 0.13^b	3.86 ± 0.58^b	4.80 ± 0.13^b	3.93 ± 0.27^b	0.27 ± 0.11^a
22:1n-9	3.46 ± 0.41^c	2.48 ± 0.04^bc	2.65 ± 0.71^bc	2.28 ± 0.53^b	2.55 ± 0.34^bc	0.16 ± 0.05^a
22:0	–	–	–	–	–	0.37 ± 0.04
SFA	26.19 ± 1.77^bc	28.69 ± 2.10^c	28.19 ± 3.77^bc	24.49 ± 2.99^b	27.61 ± 0.65^bc	19.92 ± 1.27^a
MUFA	35.03 ± 0.59^d	31.46 ± 0.85^bc	29.61 ± 1.40^b	30.53 ± 1.27^bc	32.49 ± 0.14^c	22.95 ± 1.87^a
PUFA	38.78 ± 1.31^a	39.84 ± 2.49^a	41.63 ± 3.34^ab	44.10 ± 3.31^b	39.90 ± 0.70^a	57.14 ± 0.60^c
ω–3	35.68 ± 1.16^b	36.85 ± 2.15^b	38.43 ± 4.03^b	39.58 ± 2.41^b	36.98 ± 1.09^b	2.12 ± 0.49^a
ω–6	3.10 ± 0.36^ab	2.99 ± 0.64^a	3.21 ± 0.71^ab	4.52 ± 1.46^b	2.92 ± 0.47^a	55.02 ± 0.89^c

BIVSB, boiling inside vacuum-sealed bag cooking method.

Each value is expressed as means ± SD (n = 3).

Values in the same row followed by different superscript letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).

SFA, saturated fatty acid;MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acid；PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid;

– not detected

Table 3. Volatile components relative content (%) of turbot muscle cooked by different methods.

			Relative content (%)
Category	Compounds	RI	Fresh	Steam	Fry	Microwave	Bake	BIVSB
Ketones	2-methyl-3-Pentanone	722.4	13.44	–	–	15.43	–	–
	2-ethyl-Cyclobutanone	908.1	9.47	–	–	8.12	–	–
	Methoxyphenyl oxime	961.6	21.82	29.57	1.17	–	26.00	5.88
	2-ethyl-Cyclopentanone	907.7	4.81	–	–	–	–	–
	3,5-Octadiene-2-one	1082.0	6.12	–	3.16	1.98	1.82	1.78
	(E,E)-3,5-Octadiene-2-one	1104.8	–	–	–	5.17	–	–
	2-Nonanone	1097.0	1.93	1.49	1.04	1.61	1.33	1.49
	2-Decyl ketone	1198.1	0.85	–	–	–	–	0.97
	2-Camphor	1161.1	–	2.36	–	1.14	0.92	1.20
	5-methyl-2-Furyl ketone	2164.1	1.62	1.07	–	–	2.19	0.62
	2-Dodecanone	1298.6	–	–	0.39	–	0.84	–
	4-methyl ketone	722.3	–	–	–	14.32	–	–
	Thebacone	1241.7	–	–	–	1.57	–	–
	2-Undecanone	1299.2	–	–	–	0.37	–	–
	Amino-4,4-dimethoxy-3-buten-2-one	1375.1	–	–	–	0.92	–	–
	4-methyl-3-penten-2-one	1395.3	–	–	–	0.76	–	–
	3-methyl-penten-2-one	723.9	–	–	–	0.30	–	–
	Cyclooctanone	2304	–	–	–	0.41	–	–
	Methyl octyl ketone	1299.1	–	–	–	–	–	0.49
	Methyl nonyl ketone	1097.3	–	0.77	–	–	–	–
	3-methylene-2-Pentanone	1913.0	–	0.34	–	–	–	–
	Total		60.06	35.6	5.76	52.1	33.1	12.43
Alcohols	4-methyl-Cyclohexane	722.2	–	–	7.93	–	–	-
	Nonanol	1110.2	–	–	0.66	–	–	-
	3,6-dimethoxy-9- (2-phenylethynyl) fluorene-9-ol	1135.4	–	–	–	0.68	1.41	4.31
	Trans-1,2-Cyclopentanediol	1009.0	–	–	–	4.66	–	–
	2-ethyl-Hexanol	1045.3	–	–	–	1.45	–	–
	Cyclohexenol	907.2	–	5.24	–	–	–	–
	Oleyl alcohol	2221.7	–	0.89	–	–	–	–
	Total		0	6.13	8.59	6.79	1.41	4.31
Acids	Palmitic acid	1983.2	9.56	–	3.08	4.72	–	–
	Cis-9-Hexadecenoic acid	2100.3	–	–	0.52	–	–	–
	Cis-Octadecenoic acid	2162.5	–	–	1.56	–	–	–
	9-Octadecenoic acid	2218.8	–	–	0.65	–	–	–
	Oleic acid	2249.7	–	4.83	1.66	5.74	–	–
	Erucic acid	2278.2	–	–	0.43	–	–	–
	6-Octadecenoic acid	1165.3	–	–	0.74	–	–	–
	2-amino-6-methylbenzoic acid	968.9	–	–	–	–	2.59	–
	Phthalate	1886.9	–	–	–	–	0.84	–
	2-amino-5-methylbenzoic acid	960.7	–	–	–	7.32	–	–
	Lauric acid	1983.2	–	5.33	–	4.88	–	–
	14-Pentadecane acid	2031.2	–	–	–	0.39	–	–
	Total		9.56	10.16	8.64	23.05	3.43	–
Hydrocarbons	4-cyano-1-Cyclohexene	1082.2	1.44	–	–	–	–	–
	Cycloheptane	899.6	1.97	11.19	0.96	–	–	–
	1-hethyl-2-methyl-Cyclopropane	1084.6	1.36	–	–	–	–	–
	Cis-bicyclo[3.3.0]oct-2-ene	1087.8	4.20	–	–	–	–	–
	3-methyl-1-Heptene	1184.2	4.14	–	–	–	–	–
	Cis-1,3,5-Octatriene	1088.0	1.51	–	–	–	–	–
	2,3-dimethyl-1-Pentene	2070.2	0.59	–	–	0.66	–	-
	(Z)-3-methyl-3-Hexene	2098.8	1.68	–	–	–	–	–
	(Z)-13-Octadecene	2291.9	–	–	0.24	–	–	–
	1-methyl-2-methylene-Cyclohexane	1283.8	–	–	2.50	2.02	–	–
	2-Pentene	907.3	–	–	10.25	9.44	–	11.11
	3,5,5-trimethyl-2-Hexene	989.5	–	–	4.19	–	–	–
	(Z)-5-methyl-2-en	1110.6	–	–	–	–	7.33	–
	(Z)-3-Dodecene	1171.6	–	–	–	–	–	–
	(Z,Z)-1,4-Cyclooctadiene	1205.1	–	–	–	–	1.77	–
	(E)-4-Octene	1211.9	–	–	–	–	1.84	–
	8-methyl-1-Decene	1272.8	–	–	–	–	0.65	–
	4-Octynyl	1283.8	–	–	–	–	5.52	–
	Pentacosane	1498.7	–	–	–	–	0.63	–
	Cis-1,3-dimethyl-Cyclopentane	886.4	–	–	–	1.06	–	–
	Cis-1,2-dimethyl-Cyclopentane	986.9	–	–	–	1.70	–	–
Hydrocarbons	Bicyclo [3.2.1] oct-2-ene	1087.7	–	–	–	2.95	–	–
	1-methyl-2-propyl-Cyclopentane	1110.8	–	–	–	8.17	–	–
	3-methyl-2-Hexene	1171.1	–	–	–	0.65	–	–
	2-vinyl-Cyclohexene	1283.9	–	–	–	1.02	–	–
	2,3-dimethyl-1-Pentene	1273.2	–	–	–	0.66	–	–
	1-methyl-2-methylene-Cyclohexane	1283.9	–	–	2.50	2.02	–	–
	2-methyl-Tricosane	1498.5	–	–	–	0.58	–	–
	1-methyl-2-propyl-Cyclopentane	1697.9	–	–	–	0.54	–	–
	3,5,5-trimethyl-1-Hexene	989.7	–	3.87	–	–	–	4.09
	1-vinyl-3-methylene-Cyclopentane	1087.9	–	–	–	–	–	3.30
	3-ethyl-1-Pentene	1164.3	–	0.46	–	–	–	0.86
	1,3-Cyclooctadiene	1204.8	–	2.01	3.96	–	3.97	2.97
	Octacosanate	1498.5	–	–	–	–	–	1.39
	(Z)-13-Octadecene	2098.5	–	–	–	–	–	0.35
	Tetrapropylene	1183.8	–	0.83	–	–	–	–
	1,4-dimethyl-cyclooctane	1272.3	–	0.63	–	–	–	–
	Benzocycloheptenyl	1328.8	–	1.08	–	–	–	–
	Tetradecane	1398.3	–	0.66	–	–	–	–
	2,3,5,8-tetramethyl-Decane	1498.0	–	0.40	–	–	–	–
	5-Tridecene	1959.0	–	0.36	–	–	–	–
	Trans-7-Tetradecene	2395.2	–	0.80	–	–	–	–
	Total		16.89	22.29	24.6	31.47	21.71	24.07
Aldehydes	Heptaldehyde	1044.8	7.07	–	0.85	–	–	–
	Octyl aldehyde	1008.6	–	–	5.53	4.71	–	5.60
	Nonanal	1110.2	–	6.36	8.42	10.36	–	11.03
	Hexanal	805.6	13.59	27.66	39.08	19.88	28.33	30.31
	(Z)-9-undecylenic aldehyde	2076.0	–	–	–	0.33	–	–
	Cis-9-hexadecenal	2297.9	–	–	0.39	–	–	–
	(E,Z)-2,6-Nonadienal	1164.0	–	–	0.97	–	–	–
	(Z)-2-Decene aldehyde	1170.9	–	–	–	–	–	0.58
	Trans-2-Nonaldehyde	1170.2	–	0.51	–	–	–	–
	(Z)-13-Octadecene aldehyde	1697.4	–	0.33	–	–	–	–
	(E)-2- Hexenal	907.4	–	–	–	–	9.45	–
	(E,E)-2,4- Heptadienal	1024.5	1.16	–	1.11	0.90	0.86	0.97
	Total		21.82	34.86	56.35	36.18	38.64	48.49
Others	1-amino-Anthracene	907.7	12.93	11.38	–	–	–	–
	Naphthalene	1212.2	3.02	–	–	1.86	–	–
	1-methyl-Naphthalene	1329.3	–	1.08	–	1.53	–	0.89
	2-methyl-Naphthalene	1349.3	4.07	–	–	1.74	1.72	–
	1-nitro-[4-phenyl]-Naphthalen	1048.8	–	–	–	1.14	–	–
	1,5-dimethyl-Naphthalene	1460.6	–	–	–	0.49	–	–
	2,3-dimethyl-Naphthalene	1444.6	0.61	–	–	–	–	–
	Mono-n-Butyl phthalate	1887.2	0.84	–	–	–	–	–
	(Z)-9-octadecenoic acid methyl ester	2071.2	–	–	0.32	–	–	–
	Butyl cyclohexyl acetate phthalate	1886.9	–	–	–	0.69	–	–
	2-Bromo-4,6-di-t-butylphenol	1641.5	–	3.28	–	0.69	–	2.90
	2-ethyl-Furan	723.2	–	15.72	15.15	–	–	18.32
	Diethylcyanamide	2334.7	1.81	–	–	0.73	–	–
	Acetamide	667.8	–	0.68	–	–	–	–
	3-Butyl-2-methyl-tetrahydro-Furan	986.7	–	1.38
	Total		23.28	33.52	15.47	8.83	1.72	22.11

Table 4. Some known relative odor activity values and characteristic odor of turbot muscle cooked by different methods.

			Relative odor activity value (ROAV)
Compounds	Olfactory threshold/(μg/kg)	Odor characteristics	Fresh	Steam	Fry	Microwave	Bake	BIVSB
5-ethyl-2-furyl ketone	1600	–	0.03	0.01	–	–	0.02	<0.01
2-Nndecanone	7	Fruity smell	–	–	–	0.51	–	–
Nonanol	50	–	–	–	0.15	–	–	–
2-ethyl-Hexanol	270000	–	–	–	–	<0.01	–	–
Heptaldehyde	3	Fishy smell	78.04	–	3.26	–	–	–
Octylaldehyde	0.7	Astringent and oil flavor	–	–	90.97	64.95	–	72.53
Nonanal	1	Fat and scented grass flavor	–	100	96.95	100	–	100
Hexanal	4.5	Scented grass flavor	100	96.65	100	42.64	100	61.07
(E)-2-Decenal	0.3	Wax incense, fat incense, mushroom aroma	–	–	–	–	–	17.53
(E)-2-Hexenal	17	Scented grass flavor, fat incense	–	–	–	–	8.83	–
(E,E)-2,4- Heptadienal	10	Scented grass flavor, fat incense, oil	3.84	–	1.28	0.87	1.37	0.88
1- methyl-naphthalene	14	–	–	1.21	–	1.05	–	0.58
2-ethyl Furan	8000	Bean, malt aroma	–	0.03	0.02	–	–	0.02
Acetamide	60	–	–	0.18	–	–	–	–

BIVSB, boiling inside vacuum-sealed bag cooking method.

– not detected.

Figure 1. PCA plot of electronic nose of turbot muscle cooked by different methods.

Figure 2. Radar chart of electronic nose of turbot muscle cooked by different methods.