Bio-based smart materials for fish product packaging: a review

Figures & data

Table 1. Polysaccharides-based biopolymers for fish product packaging

Polysaccharides	Bioactive molecules	Applications	References
Rice starch	Oregano essential oil (OEO)	Fish fillet packed in starch/OEO showed less oxidation and microbial growth	^[Citation19,Citation23]
Cassava starch	Citrus lemon peel extract (CLPE)	Fish packaged in a film containing 20% CLPE demonstrated low peroxide and Total Volatile Basic Nitrogen (TVB-N) values	^[Citation24]
Starch/Pectin	Feijoa extracts	Antimicrobial against E. coli, Salmonella and Shigella. Increase the shelf life of perishable food	^[Citation25]
Chitosan nanoparticles/collagen protein	Anthocyanidin and Cinnamon-perilla essential oil	Fillets of sea bream fillets wrapped in the composite film extended shelf life to 6–8 days	^[Citation26]
Polycaprolactone Chitosan Rutin (PCL-CS-R)		PCL-CS-R films decreased the microbial population of E. coli, S. aureus, and L. monocytogenes by 18.39%, 19.27%, and 17.45% as compared to polycaprolactone film alone in rainbow trout packaging	^[Citation27]
Cellulose nanofiber /Carboxymethyl cellulose	Shikonin	Discoloration of shikonin at weak acid and weak alkali to monitor fish freshness	^[Citation28]
Pectin/Sodium alginate/Xanthan gum	Raspberry pomace extracts	Changes its color (pH-sensitive) used to monitor protein-rich foods	^[Citation29]
Pectin	Oregano essential oil, Ginger essential oil	Significant protective effect on protein oxidation, prevention of endogenous enzyme activity Enhanced shelf life of yellow croaker for 7 days during ice storage.	^[Citation30]
Pectin/Chitosan	Tarragon essential oil	Decreased bacterial deterioration of seafood during chilling	^[Citation31]
Chitosan	10% purple tomato anthocyanins	Used to indicate the freshness of milk and fish/ monitoring food freshness/spoilage (intelligent film)	^[Citation32]
Chitosan/ Methyl cellulose	Saffron petal anthocyanins	Antimicrobial against E.coli and S.aureus, antioxidant activity, and monitor lamb meat freshness during storage (smart packaging)	^[Citation33]
Chitosan/ Methyl celullose	Anthocyanin	A potent antioxidant, antibacterial against (E. coli, P.aeroginos and S.aureus) and monitors fish fillet freshness at room temperature (smart packaging)	^[Citation34]
Bacterial cellulose	Pelargonidin dye	Monitors changes in total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N) amounts of tilapia fillets stored at 4°C and 25°C	^[Citation35]
Sodium alginate	Purple onion peel extract (POPE)	POPE increased antioxidant activity, the thickness of the alginate-based films, extend the shelf life of foods with high water content and susceptible to lipid oxidation	^[Citation36]
Sodium caseinate	1% TiO2, Rosemary Essential oil (REO)	Exhibited antimicrobial by reducing the psychrotrophic bacteria count at the levels of 1% TiO2 and 2% REO. Reduced lipid oxidation, and lipolysis of lamb meat during refrigerated storage for 15 days	^[Citation37]
Қ- Carrageenan	CuO, TiO2	Good active food packaging films retained high-quality bananas (weight loss, firmness, and surface color)	^[Citation38]
Қ- Carrageenan	Red cabbage extract (Brassica oleraceae)	Helped to monitor freshness and quality of rainbow trout fillets (Oncorhynchus mykiss) because of color change when quality deteriorates	^[Citation39]

Table 2. Proteins-based biopolymers for fish product packaging

Proteins	Bioactive molecules loaded	Applications	References
Gelatin	Eugenol nanofiber and Polylactic acid	Excellent antimicrobial and antioxidant biodegradable films	^[Citation49]
Gelatin/ Kappa-Carrageenan	Anthocyanin and TiO2 nanoparticles	Changes its color based on changes in pH, act as antimicrobial, antioxidant and monitors fish freshness during storage	^[Citation50]
Fish gelatin	Haskap berries (Lonicera caerulea L.) extract (anthocyanins and phenolic acids as major extract)	Fish gelatin containing 1% of haskap berries extract showed antioxidants and color change as a function of the pH of intelligent packaging to monitor the freshness of shrimp	^[Citation51]
Gelatin/ Oxidized chitin nanocrystals	Black rice bran anthocyanins	Antioxidant activity and have great potential in monitoring freshness of shrimp and hairtail (smart packaging), high protein foods	^[Citation52]
Gelatin/Chitosan (carboxymethyl chitosan)	0.5 mg/mL squid maillard peptides	Retarded lipid oxidation and microbial growth of bluefin tuna	^[Citation53]
Gelatin/Chitosan	0.4% TiO2- Ag	Improves antibacterial and UV barrier capability	^[Citation54]
Gelatin/Chitosan	ε-Polylysine	Effective controlled six foodborne pathogens (E. coli, K. pneumoniae, S. enteritidis, P. aeroginosa, S. aureus, and L. monocytogens)	^[Citation55]
Gelatin	Curcumin, betanin and anthocyanin	Demonstrated superior color retention as compared to curcumin and anthocyanins color change with pH change application for intelligent packaging to indicate freshness and quality of foodstuffs such as seafood products	^[Citation56]
Soy Protein Isolate/Gelatin	Essential oils of Zataria multiflora and Cinnamon zeylanicum	The population of S.aureus, B.cereus, S.typhimurium, L.monocytogens, and E.coli was diminished via the inclusion of 20% Zataria multiflora active food packaging, extended shelf life	^[Citation57]
Gelatin	Dialdehyde kappa-carrageenan (DAK-car) Thymol-loaded zein nanoparticles (ZNP)	Films containing a 1:2 ratio of gelatin films (GEL)/DAK- car and thymol-loaded zein 0.25 and 0.5 mg/mL of thymol have antioxidant and antimicrobial activity in active food packaging	^[Citation58]
Whey protein isolate (WPI)	Emulsions and nanoemulsions of Citrus sinensis essential oil peel extract (CSEO)	The film preserves food against oxidation and microbial spoilage improving shelf life and quality of foodstuffs	^[Citation59]
Gelatin	Oxidized guar gum green tea extracts (0.5 and 1.0% w/v).	Antimicrobial against S.aureus, higher antioxidant activity due to the presence of green tea extract	^[Citation60]

Table 3. The use of polylactic acids and polyhydroxyalkanoates-based biopolymers for fish product packaging

Polymers	Bioactive molecules loaded	Role of the packaging films	References
Polylactic acid	Cinnamaldehyde/ Tea polyphenol	Damaged the cell wall membrane leading to change in cell membrane permeability, protein synthesis, and expression of Shewanella putrefaciens fresh-keeping material with antibacterial properties	^[Citation68]
Polylactic acid (PLA)	Nanocellulose/ Chitosan	Polylactic acid coated with nanocellulose/chitosan by showing the color change with spoilage progress has the potential to monitor spoilage in beef and other meat products refrigerated at 4°C	^[Citation69]
Polylactic acid	ZnO	Poly (lactic acid) (PLA)/ZnO nanocomposite films fabricated using ultra-high pressure has a great potential for food packaging with reduced permeability toward oxygen and water vapor	^[Citation70]
Polylactic acid	Nanocellulose	An Indian anchovy (Stolephorus indicus) fish packed in PLA/nanocellulose demonstrated increased shelf life as compared to neat PLA and LDPE during chilling storage for 20 days	^[Citation71]
Polyactic acid (PLA) / Sawdust (SD) particles	Bacteriocin from Weissellahellenica BCC 7293 was diffusion coated onto PLA/SD	Retarded the growth of Gram-positive (Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aeromonas hydrophila, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella typhimurium) antimicrobial packaging for pangasius fish fillets	^[Citation72]
Poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate)–PBAT	Oregano (Origanum vulgare) essential oil (OEO)	Revealed antibacterial activity (reduced growth of coliforms, Staphylococcus aureus, and psychrotrophic microorganisms) and prolonged storage quality of fish fillet for 10 days	^[Citation73]
Poly lactic acid (PLA)-poly hydroxybutyrate (PHB	Cinnamaldehyde (5%)	PLA-PHB films are active packaging films that can substitute plastic for chilled salmon storage and reduced the total bacterial counts of salmon dices	^[Citation74]
Polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT)	Silver montmorillonite (Ag-MMT)	PBAT/Ag-MMT reduced water and oxygen permeabilities, antibacterial and extended shelf life of sea bream for 15 days	^[Citation75]
Pullulan and sodium carboxymethylcellulose (PUL–CMC)	Gallic acid (GA)/ Epsilon-poly-L-lysine (PL)hydrochloride	Inhibit protein degradation, microbial growth and lipid oxidation of stored sea bass (Lateolabrax maculatus) fillet during storage at 4°C for 20 days (synergistic effect of GA and PL)	^[Citation76]
Gellan gum (GM) heat-treated soy protein isolate (HSPI)	Clitoriaternatea (CT) extract	Gellan gum improves the release of CT anthocyanins and HSPI regulated its release rate. The films have antimicrobial, antioxidant, and change of color on spoilage progress and hence help to monitor shrimp spoilage	^[Citation77]

Table 4. Nanofillers frequently embedded into polymers

Nanofillers	Embedded polymers	Characteristics of nanofillers	Mechanisms of action of nanofillers	References
TiO2/Ag	Rhinobatoscemiculus gelatin	Antioxidant properties	Embedding 4% TiO2-Ag nanoparticles into gelatin film gave good metal chelating and DPPH scavenging activity	^[Citation93]
TiO2/ZnO	4A-Zeolite Gelatin	Antimicrobial properties	TiO2 combined with ZnO disrupted the microbial cell membrane and emitted reactive oxygen species damaging phospholipids molecules in the cell membrane	^[Citation94]
Se/ZnO	Gelatin/Cellulose nanofibers	Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity	Antimicrobial against Listeria monocytogenes > Escherichia coli > Staphylococcus aureus > Pseudomonas fluorescens though releasing ions and catalysis the formation of active oxygen species Antioxidant through donating electrons from oxygen atoms of nanoparticles to nitrogen atoms odd electron in DPPH	^[Citation95]
TiO2	Polylactic acidModified with Lycopene	Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity	Due to lack of lipoprotein in the cell membranes, it can easily damage the cell wall and enter into the cell of gram-positive bacteria. Antimicrobial (Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus) and antioxidant film with suitable color properties for active and intelligent packaging in food	^[Citation96]
ZnO	Chisosan/Melissa officinalis essential oil	Antimicrobial and antioxidant	Due to the presence of a positive charge in chitosan polymer, citronellal and geraniol in Melisa essential oils increases the permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane to ATP which leads to cell death (antimicrobial biodegradable composite film for food packaging)	^[Citation97]
TiO2	Gelatin/Grape fruit extracts	Antibacterial against E. coli, L.monocytogens and antioxidant	Polyphenol and α-tocopherol cause cell death due to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species which leads to a change in the membrane permeability and alters metabolic mechanisms UV-barrier, antimicrobial (Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes) and antioxidant activity	^[Citation98]
ZnO/SiO2	Chitosan	Antibacterial	Mold growth of Escherichia coli, IRAQ 3and Staphylococcus aureus, S33Rhas been prevented via the inclusion of 5% ZnO-SiO2	^[Citation99]
TiO2	Қ-CarrageenanXanthan gumGillam gum	Antibacterial	Protection from UV light, partial antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus	^[Citation100]
ZnO	Polylactic acid	Antibacterial	Exhibited antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenesduring storage of minced fish paste Exhibited UV-light and water vapor barrier properties	^[Citation101]
ZnO	Carboxymethyl celluloseGrape seed extract (5 wt%)	Antibacterial	Zinc oxide nanoparticles increased water and mechanical properties Antibacterial against L.monocytogenes and E.coli It preserves high fat meat products Less water vapor barrier and antioxidant activities	^[Citation102]

Table 5. The beneficial effect of incorporating bioactive compounds into various polymers

Bioactive molecules	Embedded polymers	Benefits of bioactive molecules	Mechanisms of action of bioactive molecules	References
Echium amoenum anthocyanins	Bacterial cellulose film	Color change spotted to identify freshness/ spoilage of shrimp for fresh (violet), use soon (gray), and spoiled (yellow) shrimp	As pH increases anthocyanin’s structure changes from flavylium to quinoidal, eventually changing its color from blue-purple to green and yellow	^[Citation103]
Gallic acid Clove oil	Gelatin Chitosan	Gelatin-chitosan-gallic acid-clove oil prolonged the shelf life of salmon fillet for five days	Better gas and oxygen barrier properties, inhibition of microbial growth, antioxidant effects of coating	^[Citation104]
Oxidized chitin nanocrystals Curcumin	Chitosan	The color of the films was changed due to a change in pH which enabled identify spoilage of the hairtail and shrimp	The mechanical, barrier against light and water vapor had been improved by curcumin – chitin nanocrystal incorporation in the film	^[Citation105]
Betalains and phenolic compounds from amaranthus leaf extract	Gelatin	Enhanced the storage quality of fish/chicken from three days for control to 12 days foramaranthus leaf extract treated film	Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and intelligent packaging (visible color change from red to yellow on spoilage)	^[Citation84]
Betacyanin	Glucomannan	The film had changed its color from purple to yellow when TVB-N reached 39. 74 mg/ 100 g	Smart packaging during fish Osphronemusgouramystorage to monitor freshness	^[Citation106]
Lyophilized alga Fucus spiralis powder	Gelatin	The formation of FFA and growth of proteolytic, aerobes, and psychrotrophic bacteria had been impaired, increasing antimicrobial and antioxidant effects with increased alga in the film	The activity of oxidative phosphorylation and microbial enzyme had been inhibited	^[Citation107]

Table 6. Essential properties of packaging improved due to immobilization of nanofillers/bioactive molecules into polymers

Polymers/bioactive molecules/nanofillers	Properties of biocomposite packaging materials modified	Mechanisms of action of the packaging materials	References
Carboxymethyl- cellulose (CMC) Starch Purple sweet potato anthocyanins (PSPA)	New interaction between cellulose and PSPA appeared PSPA was uniformly dispersed in CMC and Starch The addition of PSPA increased tensile strength, decreased elongation at break and moisture content	Changed its color from red to blue and is sensitive to ammonia Intelligent packaging to monitor fish freshness	^[Citation85]
Starch Jackfruit seeds anthocyanins	Higher tensile strength, reduced resistance	Fish freshness indicator Intelligent packaging	^[Citation108]
Starch Roselle anthocyanins	Anthocyanins were immobilized into starch film, water content and tensile strength decreased, elongation at break increased	The film was sensitive to ammonia and monitors fish freshness at 4°C Intelligent packaging	^[Citation109]
Bacterial nanocellulose Black carrot anthocyanins	Immobilization of black carrot anthocyanins decreased the mean diameter of nanofibers	Monitors the freshness of common carp and rainbow trout at 4°C. Consumers realize spoilage by the naked eye due to color changes Intelligent packaging	^[Citation110]
Zein nanofibers Alizarin	Alizarin is incorporated in to the zein matrix through hydrogen bonding Dehydration temperature, protein unfolding and glass transition reduced	Monitor the freshness of trout through changing its color in response to microbial and color changes	^[Citation111]
Chitosan/ Xylan/Hydroxyapatie/Curcumin	Immobilization of curcumin into the polymers did not alter the surface of the film	Monitor freshness in Indian oil sardines Smart packaging	^[Citation112]
Bacterial cellulose Chitosan Curcumin	Improved contact angles, mechanical properties, water vapor transmission, lower moisture content, and oxygen transmission rate	Promising active packaging materials	^[Citation113]
Chitosan Rice berry phenolics extract	Chitosan- rice berry phenolics extract films exhibited increased thermal stability, mechanical resistance, hydrophobicity, barrier, and antioxidant properties	The film changed its color from orange-red to yellow (naked eye detectable color changes) during shrimp spoilage monitoring	^[Citation114]
ZnO Rosemary extract Anthocyanins Montmorillonite	Showed remarkable antibacterial, antioxidant, and air barrier activity	Zn^2+ ions damage the cell membrane and interact with intracellular contents of E. coli Scavenges free radicals by terminating oxidizing chain reactions	^[Citation115]
Gelatin/Cellulose/Arabic gum TiO2 Garlic extract	Enhanced the mechanical, antimicrobial, thermal, water vapor, and oxygen transmission rate	Bionanocomposite film synergistically controlled the growth of microbes during refrigeration of tilapia fillets	^[Citation116]

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