Food flavor enhancement, preservation, and bio-functionality of ginger (Zingiber officinale): a review

Figures & data

Table 1. Mechanisms for increasing the food value of ginger.

Value-added food	Mechanism	Reference
Appetizing main courses. Facilitates the digestion of many foods.	Imparts food value by concentrating (1.0–1.25%) sensory attributes. It makes main courses tastier and improves digestion by providing access to bio-accessibility and bioavailability of nutrients.	^[Citation40] ^[Citation13]
Flavoring gives flavor and aroma to foods. Improvement in texture.	Products like tea, soft drinks and local drinks can be flavored by including ginger as an ingredient. It can be mixed in spices used in Ethiopian cuisine when preparing berbere. Adds flavor and spiciness to foods as well as attractive color, and increases consumer acceptance.	^[Citation41] ^[Citation42] ^[Citation43]
Increases shelf life due to its terpenoids, flavonoids and phenolic compounds.	Inhibits cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase, enzymes involved in the prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthetic pathway. Reduces lipid oxidation by preventing food spoilage and microbial deterioration.	^[Citation41] ^[Citation44]
Processed food flavor and generation of spicy feeling.	Stew processed by adding ginger gives a good taste in the mouth while eating. It is one of the main ingredients in Ethiopian cuisine to flavor the stew and similar products.	^[Citation45] ^[Citation40]
Its bioactive compounds confer nutritional value and nutraceuticals.	Enriches food products such as spices with beneficial nutrients and health potential. Improves nutritional value and medicinal functionality.	^[Citation46] ^[Citation47]
Maintaining the quality of food products and increasing aesthetic acceptability.	Used to preserve the original properties of the product without deteriorating during processing techniques. During the storage of perishable products such as vegetable and meat dishes, ginger keep the product quality due to its aromaticity.	^[Citation48] ^[Citation49]
Preserving processed products.	It can be added to jams, cakes, syrups, sweets (crystallized ginger) and confectionery during food processing. Used for preserving foods used for domestic culinary purposes while processing confectionery, pickles, and sauces.	^[Citation50] ^[Citation51]
Improving food products’ texture and organoleptic properties.	Ginger is used for texturizing and tenderizing products such as meat products in the meat industry. Mixed with food additives, it improves the organoleptic properties.	^[Citation52] ^[Citation53]
Essential oil flavor properties.	Used to add flavor and aroma to baked goods and to preserve seasonings in confectionery, pickles, sauces and meals.	^[Citation54]
Condiments and appetizers are the main dishes during processing of puddings, grills, etc.	Used to mask the bad taste of some foods, preserving color, and adding aroma and flavor. Used for culinary purposes, dishes such as beverages, puddings, apple pie, cakes, breads, and sweets, as well as savory foods such as soups, sauces, and stews.	^[Citation55] ^[Citation56]
Ginger oleoresins is used.	Its composition, such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, gives characteristic nutrients.	^[Citation57]
Processing of food products enhances the growth of the food industry.	Improving the food value chain by linking the value of food producers to consumers from the basic level of food production to processed food through agricultural products.	^[Citation58,Citation59]
In nutraceuticals and functional foods.	Enhancing organoleptic properties in the kitchen for their potential health benefits, stimulates appetite and creating visual stimuli for food. By having pharmacological and medicinal properties in addition to their sensory properties.	^[Citation13,Citation59]

Table 2. Mineral composition of ginger.

Mineral	Ground ginger rhizome (mg/100 g)^[Citation45]	Raw ginger rhizome (mg/100 g)^[Citation45]	Dried ginger rhizome (mg/100 g)^[Citation92]
Calcium	114	16	16
Iron	19.8	0.6	60
Magnesium	214	43	43
Manganese	33.3	ND	229
Phosphorus	168	34	34
Potassium	1320	415	415
Sodium	27	13	13
Zinc	3.64	0.34	0.04

ND - Not detected

Table 3. Ginger bioactivity potentials and their mechanisms.

Type of ginger part and form	Health benefit	Mechanism	Reference
Ginger rhizome in fresh or dried powder form.	Has anti-inflammatory effect, and relieves nausea.	By reducing or eliminating the symptoms of hyperemesis gravidarum. Use in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy and during surgery to control nausea and vomiting by taking ginger slices. Reducing nausea symptoms in pregnancy, is an effective alternative for women who suffer from nausea and vomiting during pregnancy (NVP).	^[Citation112] ^[Citation113] ^[Citation114]
Infusion of ginger rhizomes.	Treats cold and flu, and relieves asthma.	By treating colds, colic, asthma, cough, palpitations, swelling, dyspepsia, loss of appetite and rheumatism.	^[Citation115]
Either fresh or dried ginger.	Reduces arthritis pain.	To treat Echinococcus granulosus infections and other inflammations in the body.	^[Citation115]
After ten weeks of consuming food products fortified with ginger.	Prevents obesity and body weight gain with regular consumption.	It reduces body weight without inhibiting pancreatic lipase levels by keeping the balance by lowering cholesterol and antihyperlipidemic agent. Influencing the bilirubin concentration with a positive effect on increasing the peroxisomal catalase level and HDL cholesterol. Progressive resistance training (PRT) protects against oxidative stress by counterbalancing obesity through individualized interventions.	^[Citation116] ^[Citation116] ^[Citation117]
Ginger in fresh or powdered form.	Prevents cancer.	Pharmacological effects in cancer treatment, through modulation of molecular mechanisms, inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and lipoxygenase.	^[Citation86]
Ginger rhizome powder or fresh (Anthocyanins and Gingerols).	Improves cognition and brain function	Improves memory impairment after cerebral ischemia by improving oxidative stress. The aging process in humans causes an improvement in memory and learning.	^[Citation118] ^[Citation40]
Heated raw ginger.	Relieves muscle pain.	Using raw and heat-treated ginger by 25% and 23% for its anti-inflammatory properties.	^[Citation43]
Boiled fresh or dried in water.	Prevents menstrual cramps	By influence on exert abortive and prophylactic effects in migraine headache without any side effects and anti-ulcerogenic.	^[Citation1]
Ginger in dietary supplement form.	Promotes heart health and treats cardiovascular diseases.	Treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum due the inherent heterogeneity by non-pharmacological option. By preventing hypercholesterolemia in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet through mechanisms of folliculogenesis and implantation.	^[Citation118] ^[Citation119]
Ginger with fixed concentrations of phenolic compounds.	Is used as antioxidants and antihydatic agents.	Protective effects against ferrous sulfate-induced liver and kidney toxicity by reducing lipid peroxidation and chelating iron. Used as an antihydatid effect in vitro, their product protects against host cell death by reducing high levels of nitric oxide (NO). It eliminates disorders caused by oxidative and neuroprotective effects such as analgesic effects.	^[Citation120] ^[Citation121] ^[Citation122]
Essential oil forms of ginger.	Prevents skin infections and detoxifies the body.	Through anti-skin tumor-promoting effects, through inhibition of cellular, biochemical and molecular changes caused by tumor promoters using chemoprotective mechanisms.	^[Citation123]
Ginger, as spice ingredient, and ginger rhizome extract.	Prevents stomach and liver ulcers, and aids in proper digestion.	Improvement of diet-related metabolic abnormalities due to its potential effectiveness on metabolic syndrome related to stomach and liver. Significantly inhibited gastric damage and showed significant anti-ulcerogenic activity in a promising gastro-protective agent.	^[Citation124] ^[Citation125]
Dried ginger powder in a dose of (1g/day).	Has an anti-inflammatory effect.	By activating P53 and inhibiting interleukin, Bcl2 and surviving, cyclooxygenase, IFN-γ. Suppression of TNF & NF-kB and activation of the G0/G1 phase reduce inflammatory markers in patients with knee osteoarthritis and can therefore be recommended as a suitable adjunct for them.	^[Citation49] ^[Citation126,Citation127]
Ginger rhizomes dried powder.	Antidiabetics and regulates blood sugar.	Supplementation significantly lowers blood sugar and HbA1c levels and, when combined with diet and lifestyle measures, can be an effective intervention to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus.	^[Citation128,Citation129]
Cooked ginger extracts.	Has an antimicrobial effect.	When preparing food and against bacteria in the event of an active infection. For the treatment of various bacterial infections, they are used in colic and atonic dyspepsia. By stimulating and nourishing the affected body with set amounts of ginger extracts.	^[Citation130] ^[Citation131] ^[Citation132]

Table 4. Antioxidant properties of ginger and its mechanisms.

Ginger bioactive ingredient	Application area	Mechanism	Reference
6-shogaol (20 µM).	HCT-116 human colon cancer cells.	Increasing the intracellular GSH/GSSG ratio and decreasing ROS levels enhances the expression of genes involved in glutathione synthesis. Utilizes the catalytic subunit of glutamate cysteine ligase (GCLC) and the subunit of glutamate cysteine ligase (GCLM).	^[Citation87]
6-shogaol (100 mg/kg).	Wild-type and Nrf2−/− C57BL/6J mice.	Upregulation of MT1, HO-1 and GCL expression in its metabolite-activated Nrf2 via alkylation of cysteine residues the goblet-like ECH-associated protein 1.	^[Citation138]
Ginger oleoresin (100 µg/mL).	Human chondrocyte cells.	Decreases ROS levels by translocating Nrf2 to the nucleus and activating gene expression from HO-1. Uses NQO1 (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) quinone dehydrogenase 1) mechanisms.	^[Citation139]
Ginger oleoresin (100 µg/mL).	Human cell stress is mediated by interleukin-1β (IL-1β).	Reduction in ROS production; Induction of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) translocation. Antioxidant activity to the nucleus through activation of HO-1 and NQO1 gene expression.	^[Citation52]
Phenylpropanoids (40 µg/mL).	BJ foreskin fibroblasts.	Increasing Nrf2 activity and GSTP1 levels and decreasing H2O2 and MDA levels.	^[Citation140]
6-gingerol-rich fraction (50 and 100 mg/kg).	Female Wistar rats.	Reducing H2O2 and MDA levels by increasing antioxidant enzyme activities and GSH levels increases antioxidant enzyme activity. Increase glutathione with oxidative damage from chlorpyrifos.	^[Citation141] ^[Citation142]
6-gingerol-rich fraction (100 mg/kg).	Male Wistar albino rats.	Reduce MDA levels and prevent depletion of catalase activity and GSH content.	^[Citation143]
Ginger extract (5 and 25 µg/mL).	C28I2 human chondrocyte cells.	Increase gene expression of antioxidant enzymes.	^[Citation2]
Ginger extract (200 & 400 µg/mL).	HT1080 human fibrosarcoma cells.	Reduction of ROS generation by H2O2-induced oxidative stress.	^[Citation144]
Ginger extract (78–313 µg/mL).	Rat-heart homogenates.	The ginger extract decreased levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), which was associated with lipid peroxidation.	^[Citation139]
Ginger polyphenols and flavonoids bio-active compounds.	Increases food value and bestows health while bringing happiness.	Ginger root imparts a yellow color to the food processing quality due to the phytochemicals.	^[Citation145]

Figure 1. Antioxidant mechanisms of ginger.^[146] Nrf2 - nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; Keap1 - Kelch like ECH-associated protein 1; NQO1 - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) quinone dehydrogenase 1; HO-1 - heme oxygenase-1; GCLC - catalytic subunit of glutamate cysteine ligase; GCLM - glutamate cysteine ligase modifier subunit; Trx1 - thioredoxin 1; TrxR1 - thioredoxin reductase 1; AKR1B10 - member B10 of aldo-keto reductase family 1; FTL - Ferritin Light Chain; GGTLA4, -glutamyltransferase-like activity 4; ROS - reactive oxygen species; GSH - glutathione; ARE - Antioxidant Response Element.

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