Plants, phytochemicals, and natural practices in complementary and alternative system of medicine for treatment of central nervous system disorders

Figures & data

Table 1. Herbs effective against CNS Disorder.

Plant species	Study evidence	CNS Disorder	Parts used	References
Achyranthes aspera L.	Attenuate epilepsy, Anticonvulsant	Epilepsy, paralysis	Whole plant	^[Citation16,Citation17]
Acorus calamus L.	Increase cognitive function	Paralysis, heat stroke, epilepsy,	Rhizome, leaves	^[Citation18,Citation19]
Aerva lanata (L.) Juss.	No recorded experiment	Headache	Whole plant	^[Citation20]
Alocasia macrorrhizos	No recorded experiment	Mental disorder	Petiole	^[Citation21]
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br.	anti-dopaminergic (schizophrenia)	Nervous debility	Bark	^[Citation22]
Amaranthus viridis L.	No recorded experiment	Epilepsy	Leaves	^[Citation23]
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall	Increase cognitive function	Vertigo	Leaves	^[Citation24,Citation25]
Areca catechu L.	Alzheimer’s disease Antidepressant	Heat stroke	Fruit	^[Citation26,Citation27]
Asparagus racemosus Willd.	Enhances memory, improves cognition, amnesia	Mental disorder, memory loss, epilepsy, nervous debility,	Root	^[Citation28,Citation29]
Begonia silhetensis	No recorded experiment	Headache	Leaves	^[Citation30]
Borassus flabellifer L.	No recorded experiment	Epilepsy	Fruit	^[Citation31]
Calotropis gigantea (L.)	Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease	Paralysis	Shoot	^[Citation32]
Cannabis sativa L.	Neurodegenerative disease, Alzheimer’s disease	Schizophrenia	Leaves	^[Citation33,Citation34]
Carissa carandas L.	Anticonvulsant	Insanity, headache	Fruit	^[Citation35,Citation36]
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.	Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease	Memory loss, insanity, mental disorder,	Leaves	^[Citation37,Citation38]
Colocasia esculenta	Nerve tonic	Nervous system disorder	Whole plant	^[Citation39]
Curcuma longa L.	Reduce memory loss, Parkinson’s disease	Memory loss	Rhizome	^[Citation31]
Cyanthillium patulum H.Rob.	No recorded experiment	Vertigo	Leaves, root, flower	^[Citation40,Citation41]
Cyathula prostrata Blume	Antinociceptive	Epilepsy, headache	Leaves, root	^[Citation42,Citation43]
Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw	Cholinesterase and NADH oxidase inhibition	Headache, paralysis, epilepsy	Leaves	^[Citation44]
Dracaena spicata Roxb.	No recorded experiment	Paralysis	Leaves	^[Citation36]
Eclipta prostrata L.	Nootropic and anxiolytic activity	Brain tonic, vertigo	Leaves, root	^[Citation40]
Enhydra fluctuans Lour	CNS depressant	Nervous system disorder	Whole plant	^[Citation45,Citation46]
Foeniculum vulgare Mill	Enhances cognitive function and memory	Nervous debility, headache	Fruit, seed	^[Citation47,Citation48]
Hemidesmus indicus	Anticholinesterase activity	Mental disorder, heat stroke, nervous debility	Leaves, root	^[Citation49]
Hoya parasitica Wall.	No recorded experiment	Paralysis	Leaves	^[Citation40]
Justicia gendarussa Burm.f.	No recorded experiment	Paralysis	leaves	^[Citation31]
Magnifera sylvatica Roxb	No recorded experiment	Headache	Young shoot	^[Citation50]
Marsdenia tenacissima Moon	No recorded experiment	Paralysis	Leaves	^[Citation30,Citation32,Citation35,Citation36]
Phoenix sylvestris (L.)	CNS depressant	Nervous debility	Root, Fruit	^[Citation51]
Pothos scandens L.	No recorded experiment	Migraine, vertigo	Leaves	^[Citation40]
Rauvolfia serpentina Benth.	Acetylcholinesterase inhibition	Epilepsy, schizophrenia, insanity, vertigo	Leaves, root	^[Citation52]
Schefflera roxburghii Gamble	No recorded experiment	Insomnia	Leaves	^[Citation53]
Semecarpus anacardium L.f.	Neuroprotective	Nervous debility	Fruit	^[Citation40]
Staurogyne argentea Wall.	No recorded experiment	Mental disorder	leaves	^[Citation30]
Synedrella nodiflora	Antipsychotic properties	Vertigo	Leaves, stem	^[Citation54]
Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.)	Alzheimer’s disease	Paralysis, epilepsy	Leaves, root, flower	^[Citation55–57]
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K.Schum	Anti-acetylcholinesterase	Schizophrenia	Bark, seed	^[Citation58]
Trevesia palmata Vis.	No recorded experiment	Paralysis	Leaves, fruit, root	^[Citation53]
Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott	No recorded experiment	Mental disorder, nervous debility	Whole plant	^[Citation45]
Xanthosoma violaceum	Antinociceptive	Alzheimer’s disease	Tuber	^[Citation59,Citation60]
Zingiber zerumbet (L.)	No recorded experiment	Paralysis	Rhizome	^[Citation61]

Figure 1. Complementary and alternative system of medicine in CNS disorders; (a) Acupuncture (b) Chiropractic (c) Achyranthes aspera (d) Enhydra fluctuans Lour.

Table 2. Use of homeopathy and naturopathy in complementary and alternative medicine.

CAM belief	Description	Overview	Suggested mechanisms	References
Homeopathy	Homeopathy is an alternative system of treating diseases such as CND disorders using small quantities of substances that produce the observed symptoms in larger amounts	Established prior to knowledge of basic chemistry such as molecules and atoms, which indicates that repetitive dilution as done in homeopathy gives only water.	Founded on the belief that any substance which causes symptom of any disease in healthy population also cures such symptom in sick individuals.	^[Citation77,Citation78]
Naturopathy	Naturopathy is an alternative medical therapy which avoids surgery and drugs and lays emphasis on using physical means (electrical treatment, massage) and natural remedies (such as sunshine, heat, water, air) to treat illnesses such as CNS disorders	Conflicts with standard of evidence-based medicines.	It is believed that the body heals itself with supernatural energy which guides body bioprocesses.	^[Citation79–81]

Table 3. Traditional systems and supernatural energy used in complementary and alternative medicine for treatment of diseases like CNS disorders.

Traditional systems and supernatural energies	Complications	Perceived healing claims	References
Ayurveda	There are some safety concerns on the use of Ayurveda, with some studies results showing about 20% of Ayurvedic Indian-manufactured patent medicines had unsafe and toxic amounts of heavy metals including arsenic, mercury, and lead. In 2015, a US study of users reported high lead levels in blood in 40% of study group. Other concerns exist such as using herbs that contain toxic compounds and insufficient quality control and safety measures in facilities used for Ayurvedic medicines	Ayurveda, an Indian traditional medicine, has belief in three elemental substances (the doshas) existence, called Kapha, Pitta, and Vata, and maintains that the doshas balance results in health, whilst doshas imbalance causes disease, which can be balanced and adjusted with the use of traditional herbs, heavy metals, and minerals. Ayurveda emphasizes using plant-based treatments and medicines, with few products of animal, and added minerals, such as lead, arsenic, sulfur, and copper sulfate	^[Citation82–87]
Traditional Chinese medicine	The practices rely on the belief in supernatural energy known as qi, considerations of Chinese numerology and Chinese Astrology, traditional herbs usage and using other in Chinese substances; has an inaccurate model of physiology and anatomy of internal organs.	Traditional beliefs and practices from China, along with the adjustments made by the Communist party constitute traditional Chinese medicine. Practices include dietary therapy, qigong (exercise), massage (Tui na), acupuncture, herbal medicine, etc.	^[Citation88,Citation89]
Traditional CAM in Africa	In Africa, traditional systems of healing heavily rely on herbs which are usually giving to sick people (with CNS disorders), pregnant women, nursing mothers, etc., with little or no scientific backed prescription. This exposes the individuals to risks of high doses, including exposures to toxic substances in these plants	The belief is mostly based on the claims that diseases have natural remedies, and that natural products such plants are loaded with panacea for different diseases.	^[Citation90,Citation91]
Reiki	No established reliable scientific evidence	The palms of the practitioners are placed on patients close to Chakras, which they believe are the centres of supernatural energies on the basis that the supernatural energies transfer from the palms of the practitioners to heal the patients.	^[Citation92]
Chiropractic	Chiropractic is based on the belief that spine manipulation has effects on supernatural vital energy flow and as a result affects disease and health. Vertebral subluxation is pseudoscientific practice	Used for treatment of vertebral subluxations through spinal manipulations, which are believed to pressure the nerves	^[Citation93–95]
Biofield therapy	There are scepticisms over lack of scientific-based and empirical evidence of existence of fields of putative energy which form the basis of these therapies	Aimed at influencing energy fields which it believes penetrate and surround the body.	^[Citation96]
Bioelectromagnetic therapy	Emphasizes the use of magnets in defying physics laws to influence disease and health	Make use of known electromagnetic fields, including direct-current fields, alternating-current, or pulsed fields in manner not consistent with conventional practices	^[Citation96]

Table 4. Bioactive compounds effective against CNS disorders.

Bioactive compounds	Plant derived	CNS disorder	Action mechanisms	References
β-asarone, α-Asarone	Acorus calamus	Memory loss, Alzheimer’s disease	Acetylcholiesterase inhibitor	^[Citation142]
Cubebin	Piper cubeba	Alzheimer’s disease, Cognitive dysfunction	Acetylcholiesterase inhibitor	^[Citation143]
Hydroxychavicol	Piper betel	Cognitive dysfunction, Alzheimer’s disease	Attenuate cytokines and both β- and γ-secretase	^[Citation144]
Δ^9-Tetrahydrocannabinol	Cannabis sativa	Huntington’s disease	Attenuates huntingtin aggregate and motor coordination deficit	^[Citation145]
terpinen-4-ol, α-Cyperone	Cyperus rotundus	Brain inflammation	Destabilization of fibers of microtubule	^[Citation146,Citation147]
3,5,6,7,8,3′,4′-Heptamethoxyflavone	Citrus grandis	Alzheimer’s disease, memory disorders	Induce CREB and ERK1/2 activation in cultured neurons	^[Citation148]
Apigenin, baicalein, baicalin, hispidulin, oroxylin A, chrysin	Oroxylum indicum	Nerve tissue development disorder	Induce neuronal differentiation	^[Citation149]
Costunolide	Costus speciosus	Neuroinflammatory diseases	Inhibit activation of MAPKinase and NFkappaB	^[Citation150]
Blumpenes A, B, C, and D	Blumea balsamifera	Alzheimer’s disease	Inhibition of NO	^[Citation151]
Δ^9-Tetrahydrocannabinol	Cannabis sativa L.	Alzheimer’s disease	β-amyloid Inhibition	^[Citation152]
Acteoside	Clerodendrum infortunatum	Cognitive deficit, Alzheimer’s disease	β-amyloid Inhibition	^[Citation153]
Thymoquinone	Nigella sativa	Alzheimer’s disease	β-amyloid Inhibition	^[Citation154]
Bacopaside X, bacopasaponin C, bacopaside II, bacoside A3	Bacopa monniera	Memory loss, Alzheimer’s disease	Inhibition of β-amyloid (Aβ); also inhibits fibrillation	^[Citation155]
Piperodione	Piper retrofractum	Alzheimer’s disease, neurodegenerative diseases	potentiation of nerve growth factor (NGF)	^[Citation156]
Curcumin, bis- demethoxycurcumin, demethoxycurcumin	Curcuma longa	Parkinson’s disease, Neuroinflammation and memory impairment	Prevent mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis, and acute neuroinflammation	^[Citation157,Citation158]
Sitoindoside X, sitoindoside IX, sitoindoside VIII, sitoindoside VII, withanoside IV, withaferin A, withanone, Withanolide A	Withania somnifera	Alzheimer’s disease	Prevent loss of synapses, dendrites, and axons; neuroprotection, improve enzymes with antioxidant properties	^[Citation159,Citation160]
Asiatic acid	Centella asiatica	Parkinson’s disease	Prevent neuronal cells loss induced by MPTP/p	^[Citation161]
Δ^9-Tetrahydrocannabinol	Cannabis sativa	Parkinson’s disease	Prevent neuronal damage	(Lastres-Becker et al., 2011)
Cannabidiol	Cannabis sativa	Parkinson’s disease	Prevent neuronal damage	(Lastres-Becker et al., 2011)
Seasmol	Solanum indicum	Multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease	Protect breakdown of blood–brain barrier	^[Citation162]
Cannabidiol	Cannabis sativa	Alzheimer’s disease	Reduces neuroinflammation induced by β-amyloid	^[Citation163]
Thymoquinone	Nigella sativa	Parkinson’s disease	Retrieved dopaminergic neurons	^[Citation164]
β-santalol, α-Santalol	Santalum album	Anxiety	Sedation	^[Citation165]
Ursolic acid stearoyl glucoside	Lantana camara	Anxiety	Not known yet	^[Citation166]
α-cyperone	Cyperus rotundus	Result in inflammation reduction that can benefit the inflammatory diseases treatment, including Alzheimer’s disease.	Ability to interact with tubulin and is also microtubule polymerization destabilizing agent	^[Citation146]

Figure 2. Common medicinal plants effective against CNS disorders; (a) Curcuma longa (b) Cyperus rotundus (c) Bacopa monnieri (d) Withania somnifera (e) Centella asiatica (f) Morinda citrifolia (g) Piper cubeba (h) Cannabis sativa.

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Data availability statement

Additional data will be made available on request