Techno-functional, antioxidants, microstructural, and sensory characteristics of biscuits as affected by fat replacer using roasted and germinated chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Figures & data

Table 1. Composition of biscuits prepared from germinated chickpea flour (GCPF) and roasted chickpea flour (RCPF).

		Levels of fat replacement-GCPF			Levels of fat replacement-RCPF
Ingredients	Control	10%	20%	30%	10%	20%	30%
Flour (g)	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
Fat (g)	40	36	34	32	36	34	32
Icing sugar (g)	40	40	40	40	40	40	40
Egg (g)	13.4	13.4	13.4	13.4	13.4	13.4	13.4
Soya lecithin (g)	0.25	0.25	0.25	0.25	0.25	0.25	0.25
Baking powder (g)	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Salt (g)	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5
Glucose (g)	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5
Water (mL)	20 ± 5	21 ± 5	22 ± 5	25 ± 5	22 ± 5	23 ± 5	26 ± 5
GCPF (g)	-	4	6	8	-	-	-
RCPF (g)	-	-	-	-	4	6	8

Table 2. Proximate composition of roasted chickpea flour (RCPF) and germinated chickpea flour (GCPF) incorporated in wheat flour (WF).

Sample	Moisture content (%)	Ash (%)	Fat (%)	Protein (%)	Crude Fiber (%)	Carbohydrate (%)	Gluten Content
							Dry gluten (%)	Wet gluten (%)	Gluten index
WF (control)	14.13 ±0.12^c	0.42 ±0.01^a	0.83 ± 0.01^a	9.80 ±0.10^a	0.21± 0.01^a	88.74 ± 1.30^h	9.22 ± 0.18^f	25.80 ±0.25^g	95.00 ±1.20^g
RCPF 10%	15.34 ± 0.13^d	0.66 ± 0.03^b	1.34 ± 0.03^c	11.52 ±0.12^b	0.46 ± 0.03^b	86.02 ± 1.26^g	9.20± 0.16^e	24.82 ±0.24^f	94.00 ±1.14^f
RCPF 20%	16.55 ±0.16^f	0.91 ± 0.06^d	1.85 ± 0.05^e	13.24 ± 0.11^d	0.72 ± 0.06^d	81.43 ± 1.20^e	9.11± 0.14^d	24.91 ±0.26^d	91.00 ±1.17^d
RCPF 30%	17.76 ±0.14^h	1.16 ± 0.10^e	2.36 ± 0.08^g	14.96 ± 0.15^f	0.97 ± 0.08^e	80.55 ± 1.17^d	9.01 ±0.12^b	25.10 ±0.28^e	89.00 ±1.10^c
GCPF 10%	15.46 ± 0.14^e	0.90 ± 0.08^c	1.24 ± 0.02^b	11.82 ± 0.12^c	0.57 ± 0.05^c	85.47 ± 1.19^e	9.12± 0.15^d	24.30 ±0.14^a	92.00 ±1.12^e
GCPF 20%	16.80 ±0.17^g	1.39 ± 0.11^f	1.66 ± 0.04^d	13.84 ± 0.11^e	0.94 ± 0.07^f	82.17 ± 1.14^f	9.10± 0.13^c	24.41 ±0.18^b	87.00 ±1.02^b
GCPF 30%	18.14 ± 0.19^i	1.87 ± 0.12^g	2.07 ± 0.06^f	15.86 ± 0.15^g	1.30 ± 0.10^g	78.90 ± 1.12^c	8.91 ±0.11^a	24.70 ±0.22^c	86.00 ±1.08^a
RCPF	12.10 ± 0.01^a	2.46 ±0.14^h	5.11 ± 0.10^i	17.20 ±0.25^h	2.56 ± 0.11^h	72.67 ± 1.10^b	-	-	-
GCPF	13.36 ± 0.08^b	4.86 ±0.15^i	4.16 ± 0.08^h	20.20 ±0.25^i	3.64± 0.12^i	67.14 ± 1.06^a	-	-	-

The Duncan technique was used to determine the mean indicated by different letters in subscript inside a column. Statistical data were reported in terms of the mean and standard deviation values, based on a sample size of three (n = 3). The values are presented on a dry-weight basis

Table 3. Functional characteristics of various ratios of roasted chickpea flour (RCPF) and germinated chickpea flour (GCPF) mixed with wheat flour.

Samples	Swelling power (gg^−1)	Water absorption capacity %	Oil absorption capacity %
Wheat flour	4.76 ±0.11^a	145.60 ±2.08^c	153.03 ±2.05^b
RCPF 10%	5.07 ±0.13^b	159.92 ±2.32^g	169.76 ±2.20^g
RCPF 20%	5.38 ±0.15^d	174.24 ±2.61^h	186.49 ±2.25^h
RCPF 30%	5.69 ±0.16^f	188.56 ±3.15^i	203.22 ±2.31^i
GCPF10%	5.15 ±0.14^c	150.12 ±2.52^d	158.48 ±2.10^c
GCPF 20%	5.55 ±0.17^e	154.65 ±2.11^e	163.93 ±2.15^d
GCPF 30%	5.95 ±0.19^g	159.18 ±2.15^f	169.38 ±2.18^f
RCPF	7.83 ±0.21^h	143.21 ±1.93^b	167.32 ±2.16^e
GCPF	9.98 ±0.23^i	113.21 ±1.21^a	136.32 ±1.34^a

The Duncan technique was used to determine the mean indicated by different letters in sub-script inside a column. The data was presented as the mean and standard deviation (n = 3).

Table 4. Pasting characteristics of different proportions of roasted and germinated chickpea flour (RCPF and GCPF) added to wheat flour.

Samples	Gelatinization (BU)	Peak viscosity (BU)	Final viscosity (BU)	Break down (BU)	Setback viscosity (BU)	Pasting temperature (^○C)
Wheat flour	24.21± 0.12^a	1037.20 ± 10.32^a	1542.12 ± 16.05^a	378.31 ± 4.12^a	479.17 ± 7.11^g	57.32 ±0.13^a
RCPF 10%	26.25± 0.18^b	1214.43 ± 14.21^b	1548.03 ± 16.13^b	380.52 ± 2.30^b	468.76 ± 5.49^e	61.13 ±0.34^d
RCPF 20%	30.23± 0.22^d	1226.61 ± 15.10^c	1551.42 ± 16.24^c	388.25 ± 3.52^c	454.65 ± 5.04^c	60.23 ±0.30^c
RCPF 30%	31.12± 0.30^e	1233.12 ± 18.21^d	1552.32 ± 16.40^d	406.01 ± 4.21^d	432.12 ± 4.11^a	59.47 ±0.25^b
GCPF 10%	30.16± 0.20^c	1244.43 ± 15.21^e	1568.23 ± 16.83^e	457.62 ± 8.30^e	472.21 ± 6.29^f	61.38 ±0.38^e
GCPF 20%	33.44± 0.41^f	1263.61 ± 17.11^f	1576.43 ± 17.14^f	464.35 ± 7.52^f	464.44 ± 5.41^d	62.23 ±0.54^f
GCPF 30%	34.40± 0.62^g	1272.04 ± 19.01^g	1589.32 ± 17.35^g	486.81 ± 7.21^g	452.32 ± 4.34^b	62.35 ±0.61^g

The Duncan technique was used to determine the mean indicated by different letters in subscripts inside a column. The data was presented as the mean and standard deviation (n = 3).

Table 5. Farinograph properties of wheat flour and different concentrations of roasted chickpea flour (RCPF) and germinated chickpea flour (GCPF) incorporated in wheat flour.

Sample	Water absorption %	Dough development Time (min)	Dough stability time (min)	Degree of softening (BU)	Farinograph quality number
Wheat flour	55.71 ±0.21^a	2.87 ±0.04^b	8.58 ±0.11^a	35.32 ±0.20^a	88.32 ±1.32^c
RCPF10%	58.74 ±0.25^c	6.23 ±0.12^e	9.19 ±0.18^d	48.70 ±0.25^b	68.02 ±1.09^a
RCPF 20%	62.45 ±0.30^d	8.41 ±0.24^f	9.27 ±0.25^f	52.40 ±1.10^d	107.11 ±2.13^d
RCPF 30%	68.30 ±0.51^g	8.44 ±0.22^g	10.24 ±0.33^g	58.30 ±1.31^f	112.03 ±2.17^e
GCPF 10%	57.60 ±0.20^b	2.27 ±0.01^a	8.73 ±0.13^b	49.32± 1.10^c	76.43 ±1.12^b
GCPF 20%	64.50 ±0.33^e	5.29 ±0.06^c	9.11 ±0.15^c	55.32 ±1.13^e	129.10 ±2.24^g
GCPF 30%	67.92 ±0.51^f	5.76 ±0.08^d	9.70 ±0.21^e	60.32 ±1.43^g	142.7 ±2.21^f

The Duncan technique was used to determine the mean indicated by different letters in subscripts inside a column. The data was presented as the mean and standard deviation (n = 3).

Figure 1. (a) Effect of incorporation of roasted chickpea flour (RCPF) and germinated chickpea flour (GCPF) in wheat flour samples on antioxidants and bioactive compounds (b) Effect of incorporation of roasted chickpea flour (RCPF) and germinated chickpea flour (GCPF) in biscuits samples on antioxidants and bioactive compounds. The error bars on each bar indicate the standard deviation (n = 3). The mean values on each bar with different letters indicate significant differences (P ≤ .05), as determined by the Duncan method. The abbreviations used in the figure are as follows: DPPH stands for 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl radical scavenging activity, FRAP stands for Ferric/Ferricyanide (Fe3+) reducing antioxidant power, TPC stands for Total phenolic content, and TFC stands for Total flavonoid content.

Figure 2. SEM of biscuits prepared with roasted chickpeas flour (RCPF) and germenated chickpea flour (GCPF) [Magnification 1000×] (a) 0% RCPF/0% GCPF/ Control (b) 10% RCPF (c) 20% RCPF (d) 30% RCPF (e) 10% GCPF (f)20% GCPF (g) 30% GCPF.

Table 6. Effect of roasted chickpea flour (RCPF) and germinated chickpea flour (GCPF) as fat replacers on dimensional and textural properties of biscuits.

Parameters	Control	RCPF 10%	RCPF 20%	RCPF 30%	GCPF 10%	GCPF 20%	GCPF 30%
Diameter (mm)	55.33 ±1.10^ed	54.45 ±1.06^d	54.22 ±1.01^d	53.40 ± 0.93^c	54.38 ± 1.03^d	53.34 ±0.88^b	51.74 ±0.51^a
Thickness (mm)	9.19 ±0.32^d	8.73 ±0.20^a	8.82 ±0.24^b	10.47 ± 0.40^f	8.93 ±0.27^c	10.21 ±0.36^e	12.16 ±0.52^g
Spread ratio	6.18 ±0.10^df	6.23 ±0.14^f	6.14 ±0.12^e	5.10 ±0.13^b	6.08 ±0.14^d	5.22 ±0.12^c	4.25 ±0.13^a
Breaking force (N)	15.19 ±0.25^a	15.11 ±0.21^a	15.14 ±0.24^a	23.47 ± 0.30 ^th	12.82 ±0.30^b	15.17 ±0.23^a	20.92 ±0.42^c

The Duncan technique was used to determine the mean utilizing different letters in subscript inside raw. Statistical data were reported in terms of the mean and standard deviation values, based on a sample size of three (n = 3). Where, Control; biscuits without fat replacement.

Figure 3. (a) Effect of incorporation of roasted chickpea flour (RCPF) in biscuits samples  (b) Effect of incorporation of germinated chickpea flour (GCPF) in biscuits samples. Error bars on each bar represent standard deviation (n=3). The Duncan technique was used to determine the means that have distinct letters in subscripts on each bar which differ significantly (P ≤ 0.05). Where, *Control; biscuits without fat replacement.

Table 7. Effect of fat substitution with roasted chickpea flour (RCPF) and germinated chickpea flour (GCPF) on the nutritional profile of biscuits.

Parameters	Control	RCPF 10%	RCPF 20%	RCPF 30%	GCPF 10%	GCPF 20%	GCPF 30%
Moisture content (%)	3.18 ± 0.12^c	2.76 ± 0.14^a	3.48 ± 0.10^d	4.88 ± 0.11^e	3.06± 0.12^b	4.28± 0.15^f	5.09 ± 0.17^g
Ash (%)	0.54 ± 0.01^a	1.84 ± 0.03^b	2.28 ± 0.01^d	2.83 ± 0.02^e	1.94 ± 0.02^c	2.67 ± 0.02^f	3.03 ± 0.04^g
Protein (%)	11.23 ± 0.10^a	14.82 ± 0.12^b	18.02 ± 0.11^e	21.41 ± 0.15^f	15.21 ± 0.13^c	19.30 ± 0.15^d	24.41 ± 0.19^g
Fat (%)	24.11 ± 0.20^g	17.21 ± 0.14^f	15.01 ± 0.10^d	14.02 ± 0.21^c	16.01 ± 0.14^e	13.11 ± 0.10^b	11.32 ± 0.21^a
Crude fiber (%)	0.21 ± 0.26^a	0.58 ± 0.20^b	0.96 ± 0.11^d	1.30 ± 0.21^f	0.88 ± 0.23^c	1.22 ± 0.15^e	2.30 ± 0.27^g
Carbohydrate (%)	63.91 ± 0.80^d	64.55 ± 0.42^f	63.13 ± 0.57^e	59.34 ± 0.64^b	65.96 ± 0.32^g	63.70 ± 0.51^c	58.94 ± 0.24^a
Energy (Kcal/100 g)	518	472	460	449	469	450	444

The Duncan technique was used to determine the mean utilizing different letters in subscript inside raw. The data are presented as the mean and standard deviation (n = 3). The values are presented on a dry weight basis Where, Control; biscuits without fat replacement

Figure 4. (a) Effect of roasted chickpea flour (RCPF) on sensory properties of biscuits. Where, Control*; biscuits without fat replacement (b) Effect of germinated chick pea flour (GCPF) on sensorial properties of biscuits. Where, *Control; biscuits without fat replacement.