Total life cycle emissions of post-Panamax containerships powered by conventional fuel or natural gas

Figures & data

Table 1. EFs of upstream shipbuilding and oil refinery industries (kg/t) (Sources: CSC 2013; CPC 2013; CSBC 2013).

	NOx	SOx	PM10	VOC	GHG (CO2e)
Steel factory	0.9787	1.0863	0.3749	0.0724	2,331.2113
Shipbuilding	0.0029	0.0043	0.0209	5.2925	239.6133
Oil refinery	0.2695	0.1983	0.0247	0.1662	420.5758

Note. The unit of EF is weight of emission per tonne (t) of product.

Table 2. Ship specifications (Source: Classification Society 2014).

	VLCC	Bunker barge	Containerships
Dimensions L × B × D (m)	316.0 × 60.0 × 29.7	60.1 × 11.0 × 5.5	333.2 × 42.8 × 24.5
Deadweight (t)	300,000	1,680	8,600 (TEU)
Year built	2008	1999	2006 to 2013
Total ME power (kW)	25,090 × 1 (set)	994 × 2 (sets)	68,666 × 1 (set)
ME (RPM)	78.6	900	94
Rated speed (knots)	17.0	12.0	25.6
Total AE power (kW)	880 × 3 (sets)	400 × 3 (sets)	3,162 × 3 (sets)

Figure 1. Picture of studied containership.

Table 3. EFs of oil extraction and fuel transportation (kg/t).

	VOC	CO	NOx	PM10	SOx	CH4	N2O	CO2
Oil field	0.4152	0.3142	0.7533	0.0863	0.2014	5.7330	0.4910	9.4529E+1
VLCC	2.7260E–2	7.0268E–2	5.7817E–1	5.6792E–2	3.8340E–1	2.3502E–4	1.2388E–3	2.2512E+1
Bunkering	2.3359E–3	6.4238E–3	8.5845E–2	8.4093E–3	6.9377E–2	2.3359E–5	1.8103E–4	4.0817
LNG WTP	7.9000E–2	4.5750E–1	1.5394	3.8227E–2	7.2073E–1	8.4952	1.1785E–2	5.7360E+2

Note. The unit of EF is weight of emission per ton (t) of oil, for fuel extraction or transport.

Figure 2. Possible routes of the studied ships.

Table 4. VLCC crude oil transportation mode.

Operation mode	Distance (nautical miles)	Speed (knots)	Time (h)	ME load factor	Sea factor	AE sets	AE load factor
Cargo loading	0	0.00	31.00	0.00	0.00	1	0.77
Departure/arrival (full load)	—	4.00	2.00	0.20	1.00	2	0.78
Navigation (full load)	6,100	13.40	455.22	0.50	1.03	1	0.75
Cargo unloading	0	0.00	31.00	0.00	0.00	2	0.70
Departure/arrival (ballast condition)	—	4.00	2.00	0.15	1.00	2	0.78
Navigation (ballast condition)	6,100	13.40	455.22	0.40	1.03	1	0.75

Table 5. Barge bunkering operation mode.

Operation mode	Speed (knot)	Time (h)	ME load factor	ME sets	AE sets	AE load factor
Loading	0.00	5.00	0.00	0	1	0.24
Navigation	8.00	1.00	0.70	2	1	0.25
Unloading	0.00	5.00	0.00	0	2	0.70

Table 6. Containership operation mode.

Operation mode	Distance (nautical miles)	Average speed (knots)	Time (h)	ME load factor	Sea factor	AE sets	AE load factor
Loading/unloading	0	0.00	8.00	0.00	0.00	1	0.73
Departure/arrival	—	6.00	3.00	0.15	1.00	2	0.47
Navigation	10,500	16.13	650.96	0.26	1.03	1	0.72

Table 7. EFs of the ME and AE of a containership in HFO mode (g/kWh).

	VOC	CO	NOx	PM10	SOx	CH4	N2O	CO2
ME	0.700	1.800	17.511	1.420	9.450	0.006	0.031	554.790
AE	0.400	1.100	8.940	1.440	11.880	0.004	0.031	698.940

Table 8. Containership 25-yr total life cycle emissions in HFO mode (t).

	VOC	CO	NOx	PM10	SOx	CH4	N2O	CO2
Steel factory	2.37	n.a.^a	32.09	12.29	35.62	n.a.	n.a.	76,428.76^1
Shipbuilding	173.51	n.a.^a	0.09	0.68	0.14	n.a.	n.a.	7,855.72^1
Oil field	990.15	749.29	1,796.44	205.80	480.29	13,671.82	1,170.92	225,428.79
VLCC	65.01	167.57	1,378.78	135.44	914.32	0.56	2.95	53,685.87
Oil refinery	109.87	n.a.^a	178.17	16.33	131.08	n.a.	n.a.	278,029.24^1
Bunkering	1.54	4.25	56.75	5.56	45.86	0.02	0.12	2,698.26
Operation	2,472.29	6,393.00	62,334.63	5,329.22	36,613.02	21.48	116.12	2,150,202.97
Total	3,814.75	7,314.11	65,776.95	5,705.33	38,220.34	13,693.87	1,290.11	2,794,329.62
Percentage	0.13%	0.25%	2.25%	0.19%	1.30%	0.47%	0.04%	95.37%

Notes. Emissions from steel factory, shipbuilding, and oil refinery include total GHG emissions, measured in t-CO₂e, and CH₄ and N₂O are not separately reported. EFs from these processes were obtained from the CSR reports of the Taiwanese manufacturers. See Table 1 for details.

^a CO emissions were underestimated due to the fact that EF were not reported in the CSR reports of the steel factory, shipbuilding, and oil refinery companies.

Table 9. EFs of DF engine in NG mode (g/kWh).

	VOC	CO	NOx	PM10	SOx	CH4	N2O	CO2
ME	0.5308	0.2000	19.7000	0.0014	0.0026	0.5000	0.0195	452.4000
AE	0.5308	0.2000	2.0273	0.0014	0.0026	6.0000	0.0195	485.7000

Table 10. Containership 25-yr total life cycle emissions in NG mode (t).

	VOC	CO	NOx	PM10	SOx	CH4	N2O	CO2
Steel factory	2.37	n.a.^a	32.09	12.29	35.62	n.a.	n.a.	76,428.76^1
Shipbuilding	173.51	n.a.^a	0.09	0.68	0.14	n.a.	n.a.	7,855.72^1
Oil field	49.51	37.46	89.82	10.29	24.01	683.59	58.55	11,271.44
VLCC	2.53	0.95	64.07	0.01	0.01	3.94	0.09	2,165.06
Oil refinery	5.49	n.a.^a	8.91	0.82	6.55	n.a.	n.a.	13,901.46^1
Bunkering	0.10	0.04	0.39	0.0003	0.0005	1.16	0.0038	93.75
Operation	1,988.22	749.19	63,351.27	5.36	9.81	4,620.51	73.04	1,711,297.19
LNG WTP	50.26	291.07	979.38	24.32	458.53	5,404.70	7.50	364,932.01
Total	2,272.00	1,078.71	66,526.03	53.78	534.68	10,713.90	139.18	2,187,945.40
Percentage	0.10%	0.05%	2.93%	< 0.003%	0.02%	0.47%	0.01%	96.42%

Notes. Emissions from steel factory, shipbuilding, and oil refinery include total GHG emissions, measured in t-CO₂e, and CH₄ and N₂O are not separately reported. EFs from these processes were obtained from the CSR reports of the Taiwanese manufacturers. See Table 1 for details.

^a CO emissions were underestimated due to the fact that EF were not reported in the CSR reports of the steel factory, shipbuilding, and oil refinery companies.

Figure 3. Total emissions proportions for each process in HFO mode.

Figure 4. Emissions reductions due to LNG fuel.

Figure 5. Differing EFs of diesel ME in HFO mode.

Figure 6. Differing EFs of dual fuel ME in NG mode.

Figure 7. Differing EFs of diesel AE in HFO mode.

Figure 8. Differing EFs of dual fuel AE in NG mode.

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