State of the art and applications in nanostructured biocatalysis

Figures & data

Figure 1. Representive methods applied during the enzymatic immobilization. Absorption (a). Entrapment (b). Covalent attachment (c). Cross-linking (d).

Figure 2. Recent applications of nanozymes and proposed mechanisms (A: substrate; POD: peroxidase; CAT: catalase; OXD: oxidase; SOD: superoxide dismutase.). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [21], Huang, Y., Ren, J. and Qu, X., 2019. Nanozymes: Classification, catalytic mechanisms, activity regulation, and applications. Chemical Review, 119(6), pp.4357–4412.

Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of enzyme immobilization and nanozyme.

	Enzyme immobilization	Nanozyme
Advantages	Excellent substrate specificity	High stability
	High reaction selectivity High catalytic activity	Good reproducibility of results
	Wide range of catalysis	Easy separation
	Design catalysis activity via protein engineering	Good reusability
	Good biocompatibility	Low cost
		Multi-enzyme mimetic activities in the same nanomaterial
Disadvantages	Loss of enzyme activity	Limited range of catalysis
	Limited transfer of substrates and products	Low substrate specificity
	High cost	Low reaction selectivity
	High energy and time consumption of immobilization processes	Potential biotoxicity
	Low durability

Table 2. The applications and performances of nanomaterial immobilized enzymes.

Nanomaterial^a	Enzyme	Immobilization method^b	Application	Performance study	Ref.
Fe3O4 - chitosan	Laccase	GA covalent coupling	Degradation of chlorophenol	Retained more than 76% of its initial activity after 10 cycles	[16]
Fe3O4- polydopamine	Horseradish peroxidase	Covalent attachment	Detection of H2O2	Linear range: 0.5-30 μmol/L; Detection limit: 0.23 μmol/L	[31]
Fe3O4/SiO2- tannic acid	Catalase	APTES/GA covalent coupling	Stability enhancement	Maintained about 55% of its initial activity after 9 cycles	[32]
Fe3O4 -CMC-IL	Penicillin G acylase	EDC/NHS covalent coupling	Stability enhancement	Maintained 92.6 % of its initial activity after 10 cycles	[33]
Fe3O4 -M-MWNTs	Porcine pancreas lipase	Physical adsorption	Synthesis of substituted 2H-chromenes	The yield remained above 83% after 5 cycles	[34]
Fe3O4/h-CNT /ZrO2	Glucose oxidase	GA covalent coupling	Detection of glucose	Linear range: 0-1.6 mmol/L; Detection limit: 6.9 μmol/L	[35]
MSMS	Laccase and versatile peroxidase	–	Conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to vanillin	Yield of vanillin reached 27% within 6 h	[36]
AuNPs-MoS2	Laccase	Nafion coating	Detect catechol	Linear range: 2-2000 μmol/L; Detection limit: 2 μmol/L; Remained about 90% of its initial response after 3 months	[37]
AuNPs	Horseradish peroxidase	Physical adsorption	Immunoassay for chloramphenicol	Linear range: 0.001–10 ng/mL; Detection limit: 0.33 pg/mL; Stable up to 1 month	[38]
AuNPs-Pt-DEBP. AgNPs-Pt-DEBP. AuNPs-BI. AgNPs-BI	Pseudomonas fluorescens lipase	Physical adsorption	Stability enhancement	–	[39]
Chitosan -AuNPs/ montmorillonite.	Polyphenol oxidase	Physical adsorption	Oxidation of phenolic compounds	At pH 3 and 11, retained 53.1% and 75.4% of its activity within 8 h. Maintained about 59.1% of its initial activity after 10 cycles	[40]
Carbon nanofibers–AuNPs	Tyrosinase	GA crosslinking	Detection of ferulic acid in cosmetics	Linear range: 0.1-1.6 μmol/L; Detection limit: 2.89 nmol/L; Quantification limit: 9.64 nmol/L	[41]
SiO2 NPs	β-galactosidase	Encapsulation	Transglycosylation of lactose into N- acetyllactosamine	No significant reduction in the molar yield was observed after 8 cycles	[42]
SiO2- nanocrystalline cellulose- polyethersulfone	Candida rugosa lipase	GA crosslinking	Synthesis of pentyl valerate	Yield reached 91.3% within 3 h	[43]
Mesoporous SiO2-NH2	C. antarctica lipase	GA crosslinking	Synthesis of ethyl levulinate	Yield maintained above at 68 % after 7 cycles	[44]
Macroporous SiO2	Phospholipase D	Physical adsorption	Synthesis of phosphatidylserie	Remained about 90% of its initial activity after 28 days. Yield maintained at 79.3% after 12 cycles	[45]
Mesoporous SiO2-NH2	Xylanase	Physical adsorption	Lignocellulosic hydrolysis	The yield remained about 75% after 9 cycles	[46]
UiO-66-NH2	Lipase AYS	Precipitation-crosslinking	Kinetic resolution of 2-(4-Methylphenyl) propanoic acid enantiomers	Yield reached 72.57% with 93.20% of enantiomeric excess	[47]
UiO-66-porous polyvinylidene fluoride	Lipase	Physical adsorption	Separation from reaction system	Retained 70 % of its initial activity after 100 min at 70 °C. Remained above 50% of its initial activity after 5 cycles	[48]
UiO-66	Pseudomonas fluorescence lipase	Covalent cross-linking	Catalytic enantioselective hydrolysis and transesterification reaction	No significant reduction in the activity was observed after 3 cycles	[49]
ZIF-8	β- galactosidase and glucose oxidase	Encapsulation	Fluorescent detection of lactose	Linear range: 125-1000 μmol/L; Detection limit: 41.67 μmol/L; Remained about 76.83 % of its initial activity after 3 days	[50]
ZIF-8- cellulose acetate	Laccase and glucose oxidase	Encapsulation	Detection of glucose	Linear range: 1-10 mmol/L; Detection limit: 5.35 μmol/L; The time of stable working up to 15 h	[51]
SOM-ZIF-8	Horseradish peroxidase	Encapsulation	Biodegradation of hazardous dyes	Remained about 85% of its initial activity after 5 cycles	[52]
ZIF-8-GO and CABDC-GO	Lysozyme	Encapsulation	Development of a large substrate biocatalysis system	–	[53]
ZIF-8-Fe	Glucose oxidase	Biomimetic mineralization	Development of a cascade catalytic reactor	Retained 92 % of its initial activity after 30 min at pH = 4. Reused at least 5 times	[54]
ZIF-8	Trehalose synthase and glucose isomerase	Encapsulation	Coproduction of trehalose and fructose	Yield of trehalose reached 67.82% within 16.8 h. Yield remained above 50% after 20 cycles	[55]

a IL: ionic liquid. M-MWNTs: magnetic multiwalled carbon nanotubes. h-CNT: hybrid carbon nanotubes. MSMS: magnetic silica microspheres. Pt-DEBP: trans, trans-[dithiodibis(tributylphosphine) diplatinum (II)-4,4′-diethynylbiphenyl]. BI: 4,4′-dithiol-biphenyl. SOM: single-crystal ordered microporous. GO: graphite oxide.

b GA: glutaraldehyde. APTES: 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane. EDC: 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride. NHS: N-hydroxysuccinimide.

Figure 3. The oxidation of 2,4-dichloro-phenol and 4-chloro-phenol catalyzed by Laccase-Fe₃O₄@CTS.

Figure 4. The synthesis of 2H-chromenes. Reprinted with permission from [34].

Figure 5. The synthesis of vanillin.

Figure 6. The detection of chloramphenicol (CAP). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [38].

Figure 7. The synthesis of pentyl valerate (a) and ethyl levulinate (b).

Figure 8. The synthesys of phosphatidylserine (PS).

Figure 9. The kinetic resolution of 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl) propionic acid ethyl ester (2-HPPAEE) enantiomers and 4-methoxymandelic acid(4-MMA) enantiomers.

Figure 10. The detection mechanism of glucose concentration by Fe-ZIF-8 combined with glucose oxidase (GOx).

Table 3. Nanomaterials with enzyme-like activities.

Nanomaterial^a	Enzyme	Application^b	Ref.
Au-silica nanohybrid	Glucose-oxidase	Glucose oxidation	[19]
Au-Ag@HA NPs	Peroxidase	Enhanced cancer therapy	[64]
Au-Pt@SF NPs	Oxidase and peroxidase	Enhanced cancer therapy	[65]
Pt-C	Oxidase and peroxidase	Photodynamic and catalytic synergistic tumor therapy	[66]
Au-Pt/SiO2	Peroxidase	Immunosorbent assay for aflatoxin B1	[67]
Pt-Ni@CA hollow nanospheres	Peroxidase	Human serum albumin (HSA) detection	[68]
Au@MagSiO2	Peroxidase	Glucose detection in human whole blood	[69]
Au–Pt core/shell nanorod	Peroxidase	Measles virus diagnosis	[70]
Au-Pt	Peroxidase	Surface enhanced Raman scattering	[71]
Au-Pt NPs	Peroxidase	Ag^+ detection	[72]
Fe-Cu-DA/NC	Cytochrome c oxidase	Complete oxygen reduction reaction	[73]
Cu- polydopamine	Peroxidase	Biosensing and catalytic reduction of organic dyes	[74]
Ru NPs-MWCNTs	Peroxidase	Glucose detection	[75]
CuxO nanoparticle clusters	Peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase	Ameliorating Parkinson’s disease	[76]
Au-Pt-Co@DMSN	Peroxidase and catalase	Decontamination of two kinds of wastewater	[77]
Fe3O4 NPs	Peroxidase	Enantioselective catalysis	[78]
Fe3O4-C nanowires	Peroxidase	Detection of platelet-derived growth factor BB	[79]
FeWOX nanosheets	Peroxidase	Sensing cancer via photoacoustic imaging	[80]
CeO2 nanorod	Oxidative	Tumor therapy	[81]
CeO2 NPs	Peroxidase	Simultaneous phosphoprotein isolation and detection	[82]
CoFe2O4 NPs	Peroxidase	Kanamycin detection	[83]
MnO2 nanosheets	Peroxidase	On-site monitoring of oxalate	[84]
MnO2-BSA	Peroxidase	Real-time imaging and enhanced phototherapy of esophageal cancer	[85]
MnO2-mesoporous silica	Catalase	Enhancing ROS‐mediated breast cancer therapy	[86]
EPC	Oxidase and peroxidase	Biosensor for acid phosphatase and H2O2	[29]
Nanodiamonds	Peroxidase	Against periodontal bacterial infection	[87]
Rosette-shaped graphitic carbon nitride	Peroxidase	Glucose detection	[88]
G-C3N4	Peroxidase and glucose-oxidase	H2O2 and glucose detection	[89]
G-C3N4/Pt^2+	Peroxidase	H2O2 and glucose detection	[90]
G-C3N4/CeO2	Peroxidase	Mercury (II) detection	[91]
MoS2/rGO	Peroxidase	Smart bacterial killing	[92]
Nitrogen-doped porous carbon nanospheres	Oxidase, peroxidase, catalase and superoxide dismutase	ROS regulation for tumor catalytic therapy	[93]
GOQD	Peroxidase	Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes	[94]
GQDs	Peroxidase	Enhanced cancer therapy	[95]
NEQC-340	Peroxidase	Glutathione determination	[96]
MIL-88	Peroxidase	Detection of aflatoxin B1	[97]
MOF-818	Catechol oxidase	Catalysis of catechol oxidation	[98]
MIL-88/Pt/MIL-88	Peroxidase	Ultrasensitive exosomal miRNA analysis	[99]
Prussian blue NPs	Peroxidase	Detect glycated albumin	[100]

a HA: hyaluronic acid. SF: silk fibroin. CA: citric acid. MagSiO₂: magnetic SiO₂. DA/NC: three-dimensional porous N-doped carbon. DMSN: dendrimer-like macroporous silica nanoparticles. BSA: bovine serum albumin. EPC: enteromorpha prolifera-based hierarchical porous carbon. rGO: reduced graphene oxide. GOQD: graphene oxide quantum dots. GQDs: graphene quantum dots. NEQC-340: nanosized electroactive quasicoral-340.

b ROS: reactive oxygen species.

Figure 11. Schematic illustration shows synergetic multimodal for tumor therapy by Au-Ag@HA nanoparticles. Reprinted with permission from [64].

Figure 12. Enantioselective synthesis of tyrosinol catalyzed by Fe₃O₄@Poly(L-/D-Trp).

Figure 13. Schematic illustration for the detection of oxalate. The chromogen reagent TMB will not be oxidized to oxTMB with Mn²⁺, thus resulting in the color difference.

Figure 14. The oxidation of 3,5-Di-tert-butylcatechol catalyzed by MOF-818.

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Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.