Ecological footprint, energy usage, and economic progress relationship: the MINT countries

Figures & data

Table 1. Data description and source.

	LNFOOT^1	LNPGDP^2	LNEC^3
Mean	18.97223	8.222294	6.754278
Median	19.02632	8.332074	6.664532
Maximum	19.90519	9.551284	7.437551
Minimum	17.83792	6.690499	5.694762
Std. Dev.	0.492528	0.795356	0.439836
Skewness	−0.267279	−0.119881	−0.272003
Kurtosis	2.296330	1.546822	2.535618
Jarque-Bera	5.986928	16.63063	3.922218
Probability	0.050114	0.000245	0.140702
Sum	3490.890	1512.902	1242.787
Sum Sq. Dev.	44.39276	115.7642	35.40235
Observations	184	184	184

(1) ln of EF in a global hectare of land, retrieved from https://footprintnetwork.org.

(2) ln of real gross domestic product, in 2010 US$; and (3) ln of energy consumption, oil equivalent per capita (Kg). Both (2) and (3) retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org.

Source: generated by the authors.

Figure 1. The graphical plots of the natural logarithms of FOOT, PGDP, and EC.

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 2. Cross-sectionally independent panel unit root tests.

	intercept			intercept and trend			intercept			intercept and trend			intercept			intercept and trend
Method	Statistic	Prob.**	Obs	Statistic	Prob.**	Obs	Statistic	Prob.**	Obs	Statistic	Prob.**	Obs	Statistic	Prob.**	Obs	Statistic	Prob.**	Obs
	Series: LNEC						Series: LNFOOT						Series: LNPGDP
Null: Unit root (assumes common unit root process)
Levin, Lin & Chu t*	−353.607	0.0002	180	−136.011	0.0869	179	−0.62878	0.2647	178	−0.64757	0.2586	179	−0.3360	0.3684	179	0.28470	0.6121	179
Breitung t-stat				1.61835	0.9472	175				−192.861	0.0269	175				−0.01134	0.4955	175
Null: Unit root (assumes individual unit root process)
Im, Pesaran and Shin W-stat	−202.906	0.0212	180	−106.740	0.1429	179	1.39686	0.9188	178	−184.368	0.0326	179	1.52955	0.9369	179	0.30268	0.6189	179
ADF - Fisher Chi-square	21.8751	0.0052	180	13.8395	0.0860	179	3.78592	0.8759	178	19.6041	0.0119	179	4.47523	0.8119	179	7.40504	0.4936	179
PP - Fisher Chi-square	21.0912	0.0069	180	11.7720	0.1617	180	3.45430	0.9027	180	22.7336	0.0037	180	4.23417	0.8354	180	6.88194	0.5494	180
	Series: D(LNEC)						Series: D(LNFOOT)						Series: D(LNPGDP)
Null: Unit root (assumes common unit root process)
Levin, Lin & Chu t*	−113.358	0.0000	176	−116.564	0.0000	176	−173.987	0.0000	176	−172.313	0.0000	176	−796.596	0.0000	175	−676.962	0.0000	170
Breitung t-stat				−801.502	0.0000	172				−794.248	0.0000	172				−762.102	0.0000	166
Null: Unit root (assumes individual unit root process)
Im, Pesaran and Shin W-stat	−984.940	0.0000	176	−971.237	0.0000	176	−168.221	0.0000	176	−168.888	0.0000	176	−772.780	0.0000	175	−672.162	0.0000	170
ADF - Fisher Chi-square	90.4635	0.0000	176	81.1068	0.0000	176	152.016	0.0000	176	183.477	0.0000	176	69.1085	0.0000	175	55.5408	0.0000	170
PP - Fisher Chi-square	90.9644	0.0000	176	82.6485	0.0000	176	145.015	0.0000	176	391.199	0.0000	176	78.9684	0.0000	176	65.8214	0.0000	176

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 3. Bai & Ng's panel unit root tests with cross-sectional dependence-PANIC.

Series: LNEC	Cross-sections: 4		Balanced observations: 45	Total observations: 180
Null hypothesis: Retain common factors
Common trends	Test statistic	p-value	Common trends	Test statistic	p-value
3	9.25761	0.99990	3	109.45342	0.99990
Idiosyncratic elements: Pooled test		Null hypothesis: No cointegration among all cross-sections
Lag selection: AIC with maxlag = 3, Test vari. MQC	Value	p-value		Value	p-value
Pooled statistic	4.0856	0.0004	Pooled statistic	2.9396	0.0032
Series: LNFOOT
Null hypothesis: Retain common factors
Common trends	Test statistic	p-value	Common trends	Test statistic	p-value
3	8.88938	0.99990	3	399.77742	0.99990
Idiosyncratic elements: Pooled test		Null hypothesis: No cointegration among all cross-sections
Lag selection: AIC with maxlag = 3	Value	p-value		Value	p-value
Pooled statistic	−1.97058	0.04877	Pooled statistic	2.62527	0.00866
Series: LNPGDP
Null hypothesis: Retain common factors
Common trends	Test statistic	p-value	Common trends	Test statistic	p-value
3	10.43055	0.99990	3	40.35603	0.99990
Idiosyncratic elements: Pooled test		Null hypothesis: No cointegration among all cross-sections
Lag selection: AIC with maxlag = 3	Value	p-value		Value	p-value
Pooled statistic	3.43620	0.00059	Pooled statistic	4.01561	0.00006

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 4. Pesaran's panel unit root tests with cross-sectional dependence-CIPS.

Deterministics: Constant					Deterministics: Constant and Trend
Series: LNEC
CIPS unit root test					CIPS unit root test
Null hypothesis: Unit root					Null hypothesis: Unit root
Statistic		t-stat	p-value		Statistic		t-stat	p-value
CIPS:		−232109	<0.10		CIPS:		−303235	<0.05
Truncated CIPS:		−232109	<0.10		Truncated CIPS:		−303235	<0.05
Critical values:					Critical values:
Level		CIPS	Trunc. CIPS		Level		CIPS	Trunc. CIPS
0,01		−2.56	−2.56		0,01		−3.07	−3.07
0,05		−2.33	−2.33		0,05		−2.85	−2.85
0,1		−2.21	−2.21		0,1		−2.73	−2.73
Cross-sectional ADF unit root test					Cross-sectional ADF unit root test
Null hypothesis: Unit root for specified cross-section					Null hypothesis: Unit root for specified cross-section
Lag selection: AIC with maxlag = 3					Lag selection: AIC with maxlag = 3
		CADF		Truncated CADF				CADF		Truncated CADF
Cross-section	ADF lags	t-stat	p-value	t-stat	p-value	Cross-section	ADF lags	t-stat	p-value	t-stat	p-value
MEXICO	1	−1.93.218	> =.10	−1.93.218	> =0.10	MEXICO	0	−3.56.994	<0.10	−3.56.994	<0.10
INDONESIA	0	−3.01.199	<0.10	−3.01.199	<0.10	INDONESIA	0	−2.61.288	> =.10	−2.61.288	> =0.10
NIGERIA	1	−2.25.779	> =.10	−2.25.779	> =0.10	NIGERIA	0	−2.11.486	> =.10	−2.11.486	> =0.10
TURKEY	1	−2.08.239	> =.10	−2.08.239	> =0.10	TURKEY	1	−3.83.174	<0.05	−3.83.174	<0.05
Critical values:						Critical values:
Level		CADF	Trunc. CADF			Level		CADF	Trunc. CADF
1%		−3.98	−3.98			1%		−4.54	−4.54
5%		−3.31	−3.31			5%		−3.80	−3.80
10%		−2.95	−2.95			10%		−3.45	−3.45
Series: LNFOOT
CIPS unit root test					CIPS unit root test
Null hypothesis: Unit root					Null hypothesis: Unit root
Statistic		t-stat	p-value		Statistic		t-stat	p-value
CIPS:		−227256	<0.10		CIPS:		−383782	<0.01
Truncated CIPS:		−227256	<0.10		Truncated CIPS:		−383782	<0.01
Critical values:					Critical values:
Level		CIPS	Trunc. CIPS		Level		CIPS	Trunc. CIPS
0,01		−2.56	−2.56		0,01		−3.07	−3.07
0,05		−2.33	−2.33		0,05		−2.85	−2.85
0,1		−2.21	−2.21		0,1		−2.73	−2.73
Cross-sectional ADF unit root test					Cross-sectional ADF unit root test
Null hypothesis: Unit root for specified cross-section					Null hypothesis: Unit root for specified cross-section
Lag selection: AIC with maxlag = 3					Lag selection: AIC with maxlag = 3
		CADF		Truncated CADF				CADF		Truncated CADF
Cross-section	ADF lags	t-stat	p-value	t-stat	p-value	Cross-section	ADF lags	t-stat	p-value	t-stat	p-value
MEXICO	1	−1.63.666	> =.10	−1.63.666	> =0.10	MEXICO	3	−4.64.498	<0.01	−4.64.498	<0.01
INDONESIA	0	−1.93.739	> =.10	−1.93.739	> =0.10	INDONESIA	0	−3.00.837	> =.10	−3.00.837	> =0.10
NIGERIA	0	−2.64.390	> =.10	−2.64.390	> =0.10	NIGERIA	0	−2.55.921	> =.10	−2.55.921	> =0.10
TURKEY	3	−2.87.229	> =.10	−2.87.229	> =0.10	TURKEY	3	−5.13.870	<0.01	−5.13.870	<0.01
Critical values:						Critical values:
Level		CADF	Trunc. CADF			Level		CADF	Trunc. CADF
1%		−3.98	−3.98			1%		−4.54	−4.54
5%		−3.31	−3.31			5%		−3.80	−3.80
10%		−2.95	−2.95			10%		−3.45	−3.45
Series: LNPGDP
CIPS unit root test					CIPS unit root test
Null hypothesis: Unit root					Null hypothesis: Unit root
Statistic		t-stat	p-value		Statistic		t-stat	p-value
CIPS:		−215643	> =0.10		CIPS:		−123503	> =0.10
Truncated CIPS:		−215643	> =0.10		Truncated CIPS:		−123503	> =0.10
Critical values:					Critical values:
Level		CIPS	Trunc. CIPS		Level		CIPS	Trunc. CIPS
0,01		−2.56	−2.56		0,01		−3.07	−3.07
0,05		−2.33	−2.33		0,05		−2.85	−2.85
0,1		−2.21	−2.21		0,1		−2.73	−2.73
Cross-sectional ADF unit root test					Cross-sectional ADF unit root test
Null hypothesis: Unit root for specified cross-section					Null hypothesis: Unit root for specified cross-section
Lag selection: AIC with maxlag = 3					Lag selection: AIC with maxlag = 3
		CADF		Truncated CADF				CADF		Truncated CADF
Cross-section	ADF lags	t-stat	p-value	t-stat	p-value	Cross-section	ADF lags	t-stat	p-value	t-stat	p-value
MEXICO	0	−2.53.358	> =.10	−2.53.358	> =0.10	MEXICO	0	−1.10.060	> =.10	−1.10.060	> =0.10
INDONESIA	0	−1.74.724	> =.10	−1.74.724	> =0.10	INDONESIA	0	−0.95123	> =.10	−0.95123	> =0.10
NIGERIA	0	−2.34.638	> =.10	−2.34.638	> =0.10	NIGERIA	0	0.58294	> =.10	0.58294	> =0.10
TURKEY	0	−1.99.852	> =.10	−1.99.852	> =0.10	TURKEY	1	−347.121	<0.10	−3.47.121	<0.10
Critical values:						Critical values:
Level		CADF	Trunc. CADF			Level		CADF	Trunc. CADF
1%		−3.98	−3.98			1%		−4.54	−4.54
5%		−3.31	−3.31			5%		−3.80	−3.80
10%		−2.95	−2.95			10%		−3.45	−3.45

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 5. Pedroni residual cointegration test.

Series: LNFOOT, LNPGDP, LNEC
Null Hypothesis: No cointegration
Trend assumption: No deterministic trend
Alternative hypothesis: common AR coefs. (within-dimension)
	Statistic		Prob.	Weighted Statist.		Prob.
Panel v-Statistic	0.815923		0.2073	0.723673		0.2346
Panel rho-Statistic	−2.086909		0.0184	−1.787337		0.0369
Panel PP-Statistic	−2.188876		0.0143	−2.097189		0.0180
Panel ADF-Statistic	0.162070		0.5644	−0.434520		0.3320
Alternative hypothesis: individual AR coefs. (between-dimension)
Group rho-Statistic	Statistic		Prob.
Group PP-Statistic	−2.511430		0.0060
Group ADF-Statistic	−3.004358		0.0013
	−0.497835		0.3093
Null Hypothesis: No cointegration
Trend assumption: Deterministic and constant exist
Alternative hypothesis: common AR coefs. (within-dimension)
Panel v-Statistic	Statistic	Prob.		Weighted Stat.	Prob.
Panel rho-Statistic	1.256255	0.1045		1.339767	0.0902
Panel PP-Statistic	−3.096976	0.0010		−2.962420	0.0015
Panel ADF-Statistic	−3.421997	0.0003		−3.629691	0.0001
	0.584522	0.7206		−0.717643	0.2365
Alternative hypothesis: individual AR coefs. (between-dimension)
Group rho-Statistic	Statistic	Prob.
Group PP-Statistic	−2.125741	0.0168
Group ADF-Statistic	−3.140628	0.0008
	−0.396845	0.3457

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 6. Johansen Fisher panel cointegration test.

Series: LNFOOT LNPGDP LNEC
Trend assumption: No deterministic trend
Hypothesized	Fisher Stat.*		Fisher Stat.*
No. of CE(s)	(from trace test)	Prob.	(from max-eigen test)	Prob.
None	21.50	0.0059	19.33	0.0132
At most 1	10.92	0.2060	8.390	0.3963
At most 2	11.78	0.1614	11.78	0.1614

* Probabilities are computed using asymptotic Chi-square distribution.

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 7. VAR lag size criteria.

Endogenous variables: LNFOOT LNPGDP LNEC
Lag	LogL	LR	FPE	AIC	SC	HQ
0	−200.4504	NA	0.002919	2.676979	2.736661	2.701224
1	799.9768	1948.200	6.31e-09	−10.36812	−10.12939	−10.27114
2	825.3007	48.31539*	5.09e-09*	−10.58290*	−10.16513*	−10.41319*
3	830.7196	10.12485	5.34e-09	−10.53578	−9.938966	−10.29334
4	835.6897	9.090026	5.63e-09	−10.48276	−9.706895	−10.16758
5	842.2310	11.70549	5.82e-09	−10.45041	−9.495499	−10.06249
6	844.6132	4.168823	6.36e-09	−10.36333	−9.229376	−9.902680
7	851.3131	11.46032	6.57e-09	−10.33307	−9.020066	−9.799680
8	859.0595	12.94474	6.70e-09	−10.31657	−8.824527	−9.710452

* indicates lag order selected by the criterion.

LR: sequential modified LR test statistic (each test at 5% level).

FPE: Final prediction error.

AIC: Akaike information criterion.

SC: Schwarz information criterion.

HQ: Hannan-Quinn information criterion.

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 8. Vector error correction model estimates (α and β vectors).

Sample (adjusted): 1974 2016; Standard errors in ( ) & t-statistics in [ ]
$\pi =\alpha {\beta }^{\prime }$
Error Correction:
$\alpha$	−0.023939	0.014827	0.011737
	(0.01005)	(0.00703)	(0.00588)
	[-2.38174]	[ 2.10850]	[ 1.99609]
$\beta$
LNFOOT(-1)	LNPGDP(-1)	LNEC(-1)	C
1.000000	0.914821	−2.223.179	−1.146.941
	(0.27762)	(0.51187)
	[ 3.29524]	[-4.34329]

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 9. Short term estimates (t-statistics in [ ]).

	D(LNFOOT)	D(LNPGDP)	D(LNEC)
D(LNFOOT(-1))	−0.498888**	−0.085540	−0.041276
	[-5.79435]	[-1.42007]	[-0.81950]
D(LNFOOT(-2))	−0.144671	−0.080382	0.004661
	[-1.71958]	[-1.36565]	[ 0.09470]
D(LNPGDP(-1))	0.194263	0.183964	0.071632
	[ 1.51465]	[ 2.05019]*	[ 0.95472]
D(LNPGDP(-2))	0.213153	0.111627	−0.061814
	[ 1.66855]	[ 1.24898]	[-0.82714]
D(LNEC(-1))	0.107052	0.125002	0.102796
	[ 0.70342]	[ 1.17402]	[ 1.15463]
D(LNEC(-2))	0.039809	−0.044169	0.012619
	[ 0.26759]	[-0.42437]	[ 0.14500]
C	0.034319	0.016764	0.014728
	[ 5.68887]**	[ 3.97211]*	[ 4.17351]**
R-squared	0.203036	0.136222	0.057029
Log-likelihood	245.5479	306.9899	337.7657
Akaike AIC	-2.762.185	-3.476.626	-3.834.485

(**) %1, (*) meaningful at the level of %5 significance.

Source: generated by the authors.

Figure 2. Impulse response functions.

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 10. The Wald test results for long-term relationship among variables.

Test Statistic	Value	df	Probability
Chi-squire	12.22970	3	0.0066
Null Hypothesis: C(1)=C(9)=C(14)=0
Null Hypothesis Summary:
Normalized Restrictions (=0)		Value	Std. Err.
C(1)		−0.023939	0.010051
C(9)		0.011737	0.005880
C(14)		0.071632	0.075029
Restrictions are linear in coefficients.

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 11. VEC granger causality/block exogeneity Wald tests.

Excluded	Chi-sq	df	Prob.
Dependent variable: D(LNFOOT)
D(LNPGDP)	5.632514	2	0.0598
D(LNEC)	0.608328	2	0.7377
All	8.796465	4	0.0664
Dependent variable: D(LNPGDP)
D(LNFOOT)	2.778879	2	0.2492
D(LNEC)	1.476092	2	0.4780
All	3.813193	4	0.4319
Dependent variable: D(LNEC)
D(LNFOOT)	0.881559	2	0.6435
D(LNPGDP)	1.453817	2	0.4834
All	1.935382	4	0.7476

Source: generated by the authors.

Table 12. DOLS and FMOLS estimators.

Variable	Coefficient	Std. Error	t-Statistic	Prob.
Dependent Variable: LNFOOT
Method: Panel Dynamic Least Squares (DOLS)
LNPGDP	0.019335	0.208905	0.092553	0.9264
LNEC	1.141.962	0.247529	4.613.444	0.0000
R-squared	0.887630
Adjusted R-squared	0.864681
S.E. of regression	0.174224
Long-run variance	0.075537
Dependent Variable: LNFOOT
Method: Panel Fully Modified Least Squares (FMOLS)
LNPGDP	−0.036797	0.196600	−0.187169	0.8517
LNEC	1.197.881	0.235065	5.095.965	0.0000
R-squared	0.823285
Adjusted R-squared	0.818207
S.E. of regression	0.206911
Long-run variance	0.107241

Source: generated by the authors.