The theory of bifurcated educational system and its implications for school improvement

Figures & data

Table 1. Seven dimensions of learning-centered leadership and empirical evidence.

Dimensions	Balanced leadershipa	Elements in other research
A. Passion and commitment for school renewal	Affirmation Change agent Optimizer Flexibility Intellectual stimulation	Self-efficacy (Smith et al., 2006; Whitt et al., 2015), self-confidence, responsibility, and perseverance; rituals, ceremonies, and other symbolic actions (Cotton, K. & Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2003) Influencing internal school process, such as school policies and norms, teaching practices, and school goals (Crum & Sherman, 2008; Hallinger & Heck, 1996a; 1996b) The integration of transformational and shared instructional leadership (Marks & Printy, 2003) Visibility (Witziers et al., 2003) Purposes and goals (Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999), setting directions (Day et al., 2016; Johnson, 2013; Shatzer et al., 2014; Supovitz et al., 2010; Tan, 2016) Encouraging teachers to take risks and try new teaching methods (Sebring & Bryk, 2000) Idealized attributes, behaviors and inspiration motivation (Allen et al., 2015; Shatzer et al., 2014)
B. Safe and orderly school operation	Order Communi-cation Discipline	Safe and orderly school environment; positive and supportive school climate; communication and interaction; interpersonal support (Cotton, K. & Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2003) Governance (Heck, 1992; Heck & Marcoulides, 1993); unified governance (Johnson, 2013) Planning; structure and organization (Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999); redesigning organizations (Day et al., 2016) Minimize classroom disruptions (Sebring & Bryk, 2000) Developing policy with a focus on student learning (Johnson, 2013)
C. High, cohesive, and culturally relevant expectations for all students	Culture Focus Outreach Ideals/beliefs	Goals focused on high levels of student learning; high expectations of students; community outreach (Cotton, K. & Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2003) Climate (Heck, 1992; O’Donnell & White, 2005) Leadership of parents is positively associated with student achievement (Pounder, 1995) School mission, teacher expectation, school culture (Hallinger & Heck, 1996a; 1996b) Defining and communicating mission; achievement orientation (O’Donnell & White, 2005; Witziers et al., 2003) Culture (Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999; Schrum & Levin, 2013); teacher collaboration culture (Day et al., 2016) Collective efficacy (Goddard, 2001; R. D. Goddard et al., 2004; Manthey, 2006) Collective responsibility (Lee & Smith, 1996) Culturally relevant pedagogy (Boykin & Cunningham, 2001; Dill & Boykin, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 1994; 1995a; 1995b; 1998)
D. Coherent curricular programs	Curriculum, instruction, assessment Knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment	Instructional organization (Hallinger & Heck, 1996a; 1996b; Heck, 1992; Heck & Marcoulides, 1993) Integration of transformational and shared instructional leadership (Marks & Printy, 2003; Dutta & Sahney, 2016) Supervising, coordinating, managing, and evaluating the curriculum (Witziers et al., 2003) Instructional program coherence (Newmann et al., 2001) Instructional leadership (Shatzer et al., 2014; Tan, 2016; Whitt et al., 2015)
E. Distributive and empowering leadership	Input Resources Visibility Contingent reward Relationship	Shared leadership/staff empowerment; visibility and accessibility; teacher autonomy; support for risk taking; professional opportunities and resources (Cotton, K. & Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2003) Cultivating teacher leadership for school improvement; shared instructional leadership (Marks & Printy, 2003) Promoting school improvement and professional development (Witziers et al., 2003) Developing people (Day et al., 2016; Hallinger & Heck, 2011b; Johnson, 2013; Tan, 2016) Teacher empowerment (Marks & Louis, 1997; Sweetland & Hoy, 2000) Distribution of leadership (Day et al., 2016; Schrum & Levin, 2013; Tan, 2016); collaborative leadership (Hallinger & Heck, 2010; Heck & Hallinger, 2010) Individual consideration (Allen et al., 2015) Professional community (Louis et al., 1996; Marks & Louis, 1997; Spillane et al., 2001) Social trust (Sebring & Bryk, 2000); trust and collaboration (Supovitz et al., 2010) Engaging community and connecting with district leadership (Johnson, 2013)
F. Real-time and embedded instructional assessment	Curriculum, instruction, assessment Knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment	Instructional leadership; classroom observation and feedback (Cotton, K. & Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2003); observation and performance management (Day et al., 2016) Instructional organization (Hallinger & Heck, 1996a; 1996b; Heck, 1992; Heck & Marcoulides, 1993) Transformational and shared instructional leadership (Marks & Printy, 2003; Dutta & Sahney, 2016) Monitoring student progress (Witziers et al., 2003) Instructional program coherence (Newmann et al., 2001) Active support of instruction (Supovitz et al., 2010)
G. Data-informed decision-making	Monitor/ evaluate Situational awareness	Opportunity to learn; learning time; and teacher practice (Hallinger & Heck, 1996a, 1996b) Supervising and evaluating the curriculum (Witziers et al., 2003) Information collection (Celio & Havey, 2005; Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999; Shen & Cooley, 2008; J. Shen et al., 2012; J. Shen et al., 2010; J. Shen et al., 2016a; 2016b) Organizational learning (Marks et al., 2000) use of data (Anderson, Leithwood & Strauss, 2010; Day et al., 2016; Johnson, 2013)

a Elements from Marzano et al. (2005)

Figure 1. Seven dimensions of learning-centered leadership.

Table 2. School reform model versus school renewal model.

The ‘Reform’ Model	The ‘Renewal’ Model
Shifting focus	Focus on students and their achievement
Driven by the reform agenda	Continuous school improvement
Externally driven	Balance between the internal and external influences
The research, development, dissemination and evaluation (RDDE) process	The dialogue, decision, action and evaluation (DDAE) process
Rigid, context-free Implementation	Contextualized and data-informed development and Implementation
Implementers as passive receivers	Implementers as active developers
External accountability	Internal responsibility and professionalism

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