Translingual practices in English classrooms in India: current perceptions and future possibilities

Figures & data

Figure 1. Respondent characteristics (n = 169).

Table 1. The rural-urban continuum (n = 76). *1 = beginner; 2 = elementary/pre-intermediate; 3 = intermediate/upper intermediate; 4 = advanced.

Context (n)	% of respondents in each context who work in private schools	% of respondents in each context who work in EMI schools	Mean reported learner English proficiency*	Mean no. of languages that respondents reported speaking	Mean no. of languages reported in community	% of respondents in each context who share languages other than English with students
rural (24)	12	17	1.67	3.17	2.67	88
semi-urban (23)	39	46	2.52	3.26	3.04	74
urban (29)	34	74	2.72	3.41	4.81	62

Figure 2. Teachers’ perceptions of freedom to use other languages. Note: Percentages may not add up to 100% because of rounding.

Figure 3. Freedom to use other languages by medium of instruction. Note: Percentages may not add up to 100% because of rounding.

Figure 4. Freedom to use other languages by teacher experience. Notes: Only 7 respondents had 0–1 years’ experience. Percentages may not add up to 100% because of rounding.

Figure 5. Translanguaging in the community. Note: Percentages may not add up to 100% because of rounding.

Figure 6. English in community translanguaging. Note: Percentages may not add up to 100% because of rounding.

Figure 7. Respondents’ self-reported reasons for using other languages. Note: Percentages may not add up to 100% because of rounding.

Figure 8. The four OL-use positions. Note: Percentages may not add up to 100% because of rounding.

Figure 9. English teachers’ opinions on MOI in India. Note: Percentages may not add up to 100% because of rounding.

Figure 10. Teachers’ beliefs on treating languages separately by experience.

Figure 11. Teachers’ other language inclusivity scores by other language use positions.

Table

Item	Values	Freq.	%
(A) Your teaching context and you
1. How many years of experience do you have teaching English?	0–1	7	4.1
	2–3	19	11.2
	4–10	55	32.5
	Over 10	88	52.1
2. What level do you teach English at?	primary school	19	11.2
	secondary school	79	46.7
	tertiary school	19	11.2
	adults	52	30.8
3. What type of institution do you teach in?	government	62	36.7
	government-aided	44	26.0
	private	63	37.3
4. What is the medium of instruction in your institution?	English	77	45.6
	Other	92	54.4
If you chose other please name the language here: [highest 3 frequencies provided]	Marathi Hindi Kannada	21 17 15	12.4 10.0 8.9
5. What is the level of English language proficiency of your students?	beginner (A0–A1 on the Common European Framework)	36	21.3
	elementary / pre-intermediate (A1–A2 on the Common European Framework)	61	36.1
	intermediate (B1–B2 on the Common European Framework)	64	37.9
	advanced (C1+)	8	4.7
6. How many languages do you speak? [highest 4 frequencies provided]	3	91	53.8
	2	33	19.5
	4	31	18.3
	5	12	7.1
Please list these languages	169 responses received e.g. English, Hindi and Punjabi
7. Are you allowed to use other languages in English lessons?	No. I am told to teach using only English.	30	17.8
	There is no policy, but using other languages is discouraged.	60	35.5
	Yes. I’m allowed/free to use other languages in English lessons.	79	46.7
Comments for Section A	28 responses received
(B) Languages in your local community and school community
8. Approximately how many languages are present in the community where you school is located? [highest 4 frequencies provided]	3	60	35.5
	2	45	26.6
	4	25	14.8
	1	16	9.5
Any comments on question 8	74 responses received
9. How common is it for people in the community to mix languages or switch languages during conversations?	Very common	77	45.6
	Quite common	57	33.7
	Occasional	28	16.6
	It doesn’t happen	7	4.1
10. How much English is present in this language mixing?	A lot.	21	12.4
	Regular use of words and expressions.	74	43.8
	Only a little vocabulary.	72	42.6
	None.	2	1.2
11. Do you share any languages other than English with the students in your classes?	Yes. Most, or all, of the students speak another language that I know.	93	55.0
	With some of the students only.	55	32.5
	No. English is the only language I can use to communicate with them.	21	12.4
12. How often do your students mix languages in English lessons?	Very common	58	34.3
	Quite common	61	36.1
	Occasional	44	26.0
	It doesn’t happen.	6	3.6
Comments for Section B	29 responses received
(C) Your teaching practices regarding other languages For each statement below choose one of the four options from ‘never’ to ‘always’:
13. I use other languages for classroom management during English lessons.	Never	38	22.5
	Occasionally	89	52.7
	Regularly	31	18.3
	Always	11	6.5
14. I translate for my students during English lessons.	Never	36	21.3
	Occasionally	90	53.3
	Regularly	36	21.3
	Always	7	4.1
15. I use other languages to explain things.	Never	30	17.8
	Occasionally	95	56.2
	Regularly	34	20.1
	Always	10	5.9
16. I get my students to compare the way languages express things.	Never	20	11.8
	Occasionally	93	55.0
	Regularly	46	27.2
	Always	10	5.9
17. I get my students to do translation activities during English lessons, between English and another language.	Never	62	36.7
	Occasionally	76	45.0
	Regularly	27	16.0
	Always	4	2.4
18. I compare the sounds from my students’ first language(s) to English to help them with their pronunciation.	Never	35	20.7
	Occasionally	77	45.6
	Regularly	43	25.4
	Always	14	8.3
19. I allow my students to speak other languages during English lessons.	Never	46	27.2
	Occasionally	80	47.3
	Regularly	33	19.5
	Always	10	5.9
20. I allow my students to translate using resources such as bilingual dictionaries during English lessons.	Never	56	33.1
	Occasionally	65	38.5
	Regularly	36	21.3
	Always	12	7.1
21. I allow my students to make notes in other languages during English lessons.	Never	112	66.3
	Occasionally	40	23.7
	Regularly	15	8.9
	Always	2	1.2
22. I allow my students to mix English with other languages for speaking activities during English lessons.	Never	77	45.6
	Occasionally	58	34.3
	Regularly	31	18.3
	Always	3	1.8
23. I allow my students to mix English with other languages for writing activities during English lessons.	Never	139	82.2
	Occasionally	26	15.4
	Regularly	2	1.2
	Always	2	1.2
24. I use texts and audio that include other languages during English lessons.	Never	102	60.4
	Occasionally	53	31.4
	Regularly	11	6.5
	Always	3	1.8
25. I think about other languages my students may know when preparing and teaching my lessons.	Never	45	26.6
	Occasionally	73	43.2
	Regularly	43	25.4
	Always	8	4.7
26. I actively encourage the use of other languages during my lessons.	Never	96	56.8
	Occasionally	57	33.7
	Regularly	12	7.1
	Always	4	2.4
27. I use other languages to discipline my learners during English lessons.	Never	78	46.2
	Occasionally	67	39.6
	Regularly	19	11.2
	Always	5	3.0
Comments for Section C	27 responses received
D. Your opinions on the use of other languages
28. Which of the four statements do you agree with most?	A. Allowing other languages into English lessons does not help learning. The classroom should be like an English-speaking country. Skilled teachers can exclude these other languages.	13	7.7
	B. Allowing other languages into English lessons does not help learning. However, perfect conditions for teaching do not exist and so sometimes we have to make a little use of other languages.	35	20.7
	C. Allowing other languages into English lessons can improve learning. But we should keep it to a minimum, and maximise English language usage.	88	52.1
	D. Allowing other languages into English lessons can improve learning significantly. We should make use of these languages. Teaching English is about adding to their ability to communicate.	33	19.5
29. Which of the three statements is closest to your belief regarding the teaching and learning of English?	In India, students should get a solid understanding of their first language, with English introduced as a subject at secondary level.	27	16.0
	In India, students should learn English as a subject in primary school alongside developing skills in their first language.	89	52.7
	In India, students should be given the option to learn all subjects in English medium from primary school level.	52	30.8
30. How do you feel about students mixing languages in English lessons?	A. It’s natural and fine.	21	12.4
	B. It’s natural, but it should be minimised.	114	67.5
	C. It’s inevitable, but it’s not a good idea.	25	14.8
	D. It’s wrong.	9	5.3
31. How much do you think your students will need to mix English with other languages in their future careers?	A. They won’t need to mix English with other languages.	56	33.1
	B. They may need to a little.	64	37.9
	C. They may need to frequently.	31	18.3
	D. They will probably be mixing languages all the time.	18	10.7
Do you agree or disagree with the following two statements?
32. Languages should be treated separately to avoid confusion.	Agree strongly	25	14.8
	Agree	53	31.4
	Neither agree nor disagree	33	19.5
	Disagree	37	21.9
	Disagree strongly	21	12.4
33. Teaching should always build on students’ prior knowledge.	Agree strongly	77	45.6
	Agree	62	36.7
	Neither agree nor disagree	9	5.3
	Disagree	18	10.7
	Disagree strongly	2	1.2
Comments for Section D	15 responses received
E. Anything else?
The aim of this survey is to better understand how teachers of English in India do or don’t make use of other languages in the English language teaching and learning process. Before you finish the survey, is there anything else you would like to tell us about this issue?	56 responses received