Varieties of Chinese as heritage languages: a research synthesis

Figures & data

Table 1. Background information of selected studies.

Author and Year	Country/Regions	Target Language Variety
Budiyana (2017)	Indonesia	Mandarin
Chen, Zhou, and Uchikoshi (2021)	The United States	Mandarin and Cantonese
Curdt-Christiansen (2006)	Quebec, Canada	Mandarin
Ding and Goh (2019)	Malaysia	Hakka
Du (2017)	Ontario, Canada	Mandarin
Liang and Shin (2021)	The United States	Mandarin
Li (2005)	The United States	Mandarin and Cantonese
W. Liao and Huang (2020)	Australia	Mandarin
L. Liao, Larke, and Hill-Jackson (2017)	The United States	Mandarin
Luo (2015)	The United States	Mandarin
Luo, Li, and Li (2019)	The United States	Mandarin
Mu (2014)	Australia	Mandarin
Mu and Dooley (2015)	Australia	Mandarin
Park et al. (2012)	The United States	Mandarin and Cantonese
Wang (2017)	Malaysia	Hakka, Mandarin, and Hokkien
Wei and Hua (2019)	The United Kingdom	Mandarin, Cantonese, and Hakka
Wu and Leung (2014)	The United States	Mandarin
Wu and Leung (2020)	The United States	Mandarin, Cantonese, Fujianese, Taishanese, Hakka, or a combination of these languages
Wu, Lee, and Leung (2013)	The United States	Mandarin
Yang (2007)	The United States	Mandarin
D. Zhang (2010)	The United States	Mandarin and Fujianese
D. Zhang (2012)	The United States	Mandarin and Fujianese
D. Zhang and Slaughter-Defoe (2009)	The United States	Mandarin and Fujianese
J. Zhang (2009)	The United States	Mandarin
Zhu, Hopper, and & Kulaixi (2020)	The United States	Mandarin

Table

Code level 1	Code level 2		Code level 3
Bibliographic features	Author(s)		Open
	Journal		Open
	Year		2005–2021
Background information	Country	The United States	The United Kingdom	Canada	Australia	Indonesia	Malaysia
	Target language Varieties	Mandarin		Hakka		Mixed varieties
	Contexts	Formal Chinese language program				Informal Chinese learning contexts
						Community	Family
Focus	Open
Design	Period	Open
	Definition related to CHL learners	Open
	Theoretical framework	Sociocultural		Cognitive	Combination of sociocultural and cognitive
	Period	Open
	Data collection instrument	Observation	Interview	Recording	Informal conversation	Artifact	Questionnaire
	Data analysis	Qualitative		Quantitative		Mixed
Results	Open
Implications	Open

*Budiyana, Y. E. 2017. “Students’ Parents’ Attitudes Toward Chinese Heritage Language Maintenance.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 7 (3): 195. doi:10.17507/tpls.0703.05.

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*Chen, S. H., Q. Zhou, and Y. Uchikoshi. 2021. “Heritage Language Socialization in Chinese American Immigrant Families: Prospective Links to Children's Heritage Language Proficiency.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 24 (8): 1193–1209. doi:10.1080/13670050.2018.1547680.

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*Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. 2006. “Teaching and Learning Chinese: Heritage Language Classroom Discourse in Montreal.” Language, Culture and Curriculum 19 (2): 189–207. doi:10.1080/07908310608668762.

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*Ding, S. L., and K. L. Goh. 2019. “The Impact of Religion on Language Maintenance and Shift.” Language in Society 49 (1): 31–59. doi:10.1017/S0047404519000642.

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*Du, X. 2017. “Rethink About Heritage Language Learning: A Case Study of Children’s Mandarin Chinese Learning at a Community Language School in Ontario, Canada.” Language and Literacy 19 (1): 4–20. doi:10.20360/G2KP45.

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*Liang, F., and D.-S. Shin. 2021. “Heritage Language Maintenance of Chinese Immigrant Families: Perceptions, Practices, and Challenges.” Bilingual Research Journal 44 (1): 23–38. doi:10.1080/15235882.2021.1922539.

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*Li, M. 2005. “The Role of Parents in Chinese Heritage-Language Schools.” Bilingual Research Journal 29 (1): 197–207. doi:10.1080/15235882.2005.10162831.

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*Liao, W., and H. Huang. 2020. “Parents’ Perceptions and Management of Children’s Learning of Chinese as a Heritage Language: A Case Study of Cross-Cultural Families in Australia.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 10 (10): 1218–1226. doi:10.17507/tpls.1010.05.

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*Liao, L., P. Larke, and V. Hill-Jackson. 2017. “Bridging two Worlds: Experiences of Chinese and Taiwanese Americans Attending Chinese Heritage Schools in Houston.” Heritage Language Journal 14 (2): 171–188. doi:10.46538/hlj.14.2.4.

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*Luo, H. 2015. “Chinese Language Learning Anxiety: A Study of Heritage Learners.” Heritage Language Journal 12 (1): 22–47. doi:10.46538/hlj.12.1.2.

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*Luo, H., Y. Li, and M. Y. Li. 2019. “Heritage Language Education in the United States: A National Survey of College-Level Chinese Language Programs.” Foreign Language Annals 52 (1): 101–120. doi:10.1111/flan.12378.

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*Mu, G. M. 2014. “Learning Chinese as a Heritage Language in Australia and Beyond: The Role of Capital.” Language and Education 28 (5): 477–492. doi:10.1080/09500782.2014.908905.

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*Mu, G. M., and K. Dooley. 2015. “Coming Into an Inheritance: Family Support and Chinese Heritage Language Learning.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 18 (4): 501–515. doi:10.1080/13670050.2014.928258.

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*Park, H., K. M. Tsai, L. L. Liu, and A. S. Lau. 2012. “Transactional Associations Between Supportive Family Climate and Young Children’s Heritage Language Proficiency in Immigrant Families.” International Journal of Behavioral Development 36 (3): 226–236. doi:10.1177/0165025412439842.

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*Wang, X. 2017. “Family Language Policy by Hakkas in Balik Pulau, Penang.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 2017: 244. doi:10.1515/ijsl-2016-0058.

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*Wei, L., and Z. Hua. 2019. “Imagination as a key Factor in LMLS in Transnational Families.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 2019 (255): 73–107. doi:10.1515/ijsl-2018-2004.

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*Wu, M., and G. Leung. 2014. “Re-envisioning Heritage Language Education: A Study of Middle School Students Learning Mandarin Chinese.” Heritage Language Journal 11 (3): 207–223. doi:10.46538/hlj.11.3.2.

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*Wu, M., and G. Leung. 2020. “‘It’s not my Chinese’: A Teacher and her Students Disrupting and Dismantling Conventional Notions of ‘Chinese’ Through Translanguaging in a Heritage Language Classroom.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 25 (5): 1–14. doi:10.1080/13670050.2020.1804524.

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*Wu, M., K. Lee, and G. Leung. 2013. “Heritage Language Education and Investment among Asian American Middle Schoolers: Insights from a Charter School.” Language and Education 28 (1): 19–33. doi:10.1080/09500782.2013.763818.

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*Yang, W. E. 2007. “Chinese Language Maintenance: A Study of Chinese-American Parental Perceptions and Activities.” Journal of Chinese Overseas 3 (2): 220–238. doi:10.1163/179325407788639704.

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*Zhang, D. 2010. “Language Maintenance and Language Shift among Chinese Immigrant Parents and Their Second-Generation Children in the U.S.” Bilingual Research Journal 33 (1): 42–60. doi:10.1080/15235881003733258.

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*Zhang, D. 2012. “Co-ethnic Network, Social Class, and Heritage Language Maintenance among Chinese Immigrant Families.” Journal of Language, Identity & Education 11 (3): 200–223. doi:10.1080/15348458.2012.686408.

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*Zhang, D., and D. T. Slaughter-Defoe. 2009. “Language Attitudes and Heritage Language Maintenance among Chinese Immigrant Families in the USA.” Language, Culture and Curriculum 22 (2): 77–93. doi:10.1080/07908310902935940.

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*Zhang, J. 2009. “Mandarin Maintenance among Immigrant Children from the People's Republic of China: An Examination of Individual Networks of Linguistic Contact.” Language, Culture and Curriculum 22 (3): 195–213. doi:10.1080/07908310903308279.

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*Zhu, D., P. Hopper, and G. & Kulaixi. 2020. “Heritage Language Maintenance among Second-Generation Chinese-American Children in a Small Chinese Community.” International Journal of Education, Culture and Society 5 (5): 100. doi:10.11648/j.ijecs.20200505.13.

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