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Research Article

No such thing as the female eye: ditching gender-binary categories in art perception

ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Received 07 Jun 2023, Accepted 24 May 2024, Published online: 06 Aug 2024

Figures & data

Figure 2a. Suzanne Valadon, the Blue Room (1923), oil on canvas, 90 × 116 cm, Musée National d’Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou Paris.

Figure 2a. Suzanne Valadon, the Blue Room (1923), oil on canvas, 90 × 116 cm, Musée National d’Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou Paris.

Figure 2b. Jusepe de Ribera, Jacob’s dream (1639), oil on canvas, 233 × 179 cm, Museo del Prado.

Figure 2b. Jusepe de Ribera, Jacob’s dream (1639), oil on canvas, 233 × 179 cm, Museo del Prado.

Figure 1a. Francisco de Goya, La Maja desnuda (1795–1800), oil on canvas, 94,7 × 188 cm, Museo del Prado.

Figure 1a. Francisco de Goya, La Maja desnuda (1795–1800), oil on canvas, 94,7 × 188 cm, Museo del Prado.

Figure 1b. Anne Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson, the Sleep of Endymion (1793), oil on canvas, 198 × 261 cm, Musée du Louvre.

Figure 1b. Anne Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson, the Sleep of Endymion (1793), oil on canvas, 198 × 261 cm, Musée du Louvre.

Figure 3. Total number of fixation.

Figure 3. Total number of fixation.

Figure 4. Average fixation duration (ms).

Figure 4. Average fixation duration (ms).

Figure 5. Saccade amplitude (pixels).

Figure 5. Saccade amplitude (pixels).

Figure 6. Overall fixation heatmaps (Jan Tilens, Mountain Landscape, 1610).

Figure 6. Overall fixation heatmaps (Jan Tilens, Mountain Landscape, 1610).

Figure 7. Difference between median fixation probability (Jan Tilens, Mountain Landscape, 1610).

Figure 7. Difference between median fixation probability (Jan Tilens, Mountain Landscape, 1610).

Figure 8. Experiment 1 entropy and fixation comparisons.

Figure 8. Experiment 1 entropy and fixation comparisons.

Figure 9. Experiment 2 entropy and fixation comparisons, part 1.

Figure 9. Experiment 2 entropy and fixation comparisons, part 1.

Figure 10. Experiment 2 entropy and fixation comparisons, part 2.

Figure 10. Experiment 2 entropy and fixation comparisons, part 2.

Figure 11. Heatmap Comparison (Pieter Aertsen, Vanitas, 1552).

Figure 11. Heatmap Comparison (Pieter Aertsen, Vanitas, 1552).

Figure 12. Heatmap Comparison (Lucas Cranach the Older, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, 1530).

Figure 12. Heatmap Comparison (Lucas Cranach the Older, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, 1530).

Figure 13. Heatmap comparison (Eugène Delacroix, the Death of Sardanapalus,).

Figure 13. Heatmap comparison (Eugène Delacroix, the Death of Sardanapalus,).

Figure 14. Heatmap comparison (Jan Tilens, Mountain Landscape, 1610).

Figure 14. Heatmap comparison (Jan Tilens, Mountain Landscape, 1610).

Figure 15. Heatmap comparison (Jusepe de Ribera, Jacob’s dream,1639).

Figure 15. Heatmap comparison (Jusepe de Ribera, Jacob’s dream,1639).

Figure 16. Heatmap comparison (Peter Paul Rubens, the Drunken Hercules, c. 1611).

Figure 16. Heatmap comparison (Peter Paul Rubens, the Drunken Hercules, c. 1611).

Figure 17. Heatmap comparison (William-Adolphe Bouguereau, After the bath,).

Figure 17. Heatmap comparison (William-Adolphe Bouguereau, After the bath,).