Current approaches for the exploration of antimicrobial activities of nanoparticles

Figures & data

Table 1. Zone of inhibition of several NPs at different concentrations of various species of bacteria

Antimicrobial NPs	Concentration of NPs (mg/mL)	Type of bacteria	Target bacteria	Zone of inhibition (mm)	References
Silver (Ag)	0.05	Gram-positive	Enterococcus faecium (E. faecium)	3.00	[27]
	0.50		Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)	14.60	[175]
	0.62		Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes)	9.16	[176]
	10.00	Gram-negative	Yersinia ruckeri (Y. ruckeri)	16.00
	0.50		Escherichia coli (E. coli)	23.00	[175]
Gold (Au)	0.05	Gram-positive	E. faecium	1.00	[27]
	0.01		S. aureus	22.00	[177]
		Gram-negative	E. coli	17.00
Platinum (Pt)	1.00	Gram-positive	Bacillus substilis (B. subtilis)	18.00	[178]
		Gram-negative	Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa)	15.00
Copper (Cu)	0.05	Gram-positive	S. aureus	10.00	[80]
		Gram-negative	P. aeruginosa	16.00
			E. coli	24.00
			Klebsiella pneumonia (K. pneumoniae)	27.00
			Shigella flexneri (S. flexneri)	30.00
Magnesium Oxide (MgO)	1.00	Gram-positive	S. aureus	27.00	[179]
		Gram-negative	P. aeruginosa	24.00
Zinc Oxide (ZnO)	0.05	Gram-positive	Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)	17.00	[180]
	0.04	Gram-negative	P. aeruginosa	35.50	[181]
	1.00		E. coli	14.00	[182]
	1.40		K. pneumoniae	25.00	[183]
Titanium dioxide (TiO2)	0.05	Gram-positive	MRSA	14.00	[180]
	1.40	Gram-negative	K. pneumoniae	20.00	[183]
Palladium (Pd)	1.00	Gram-positive	E. faecium	6.50	[27]
		Gram-negative	Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii)	8.20
			K. pneumoniae	10.50

Figure 1. (a) Structural comparison of the cell wall between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria [185] and (b) various mechanisms underlying the antimicrobial actions of nanoparticles [186], copyright 2019 and copyright 2016, Elsevier

Figure 2. The process of engulfing of NPs by the cell membrane

Figure 3. (a) Antimicrobial activity of Ag NPs on S. aureus ATCC 25923 viewed through a scanning electron microscope (c), A. baumannii ATCC 19606, (e) E. coli O157:H7, (g) K. pneumoniae ATCC 700603, (i) P. aeruginosa ATCC 10145, (k) C. albicans ATCC 90028 after exposure for 4 hours to 2 × MIC Ag NPs. The control (a, c, e, g, and i) without treated with Ag NPs, revealing a smooth surface. Cultures (b, d, f, h, j, and l), showing roughed surface with fracture after treated with Ag NPs [34] copyright 2019, Elsevier

Table 2. ROS elements [50,184]

Types	ROS Elements
Free radicals	Singlet oxygen (^1O2), superoxide (O2^ׄ•–), carbonate (CO3^•–), peroxyl (RO2^•), hydroxyl (HO^•), hydroperoxyl (HO2^•), alkoxyl (RO^•), and carbon dioxide radical (CO2^•–)
Non-radicals	Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hypobromous acid (HOBr), hypochlorous acid (HOCl), ozone (O3), organic peroxides (ROOH), peroxynitrite (ONOO^–), peroxynitrate (O2NOO^–), peroxynitrous acid (ONOOH), peroxomonocarbonate (HOOCO2^–), nitric oxide (NO), and hypochlorite (OCl^–)

Figure 4. DNA damage due to oxidative stress generated by reactive oxygen species (ROS)

Figure 5. Antiviral activity of Ag nanoparticles

Figure 6. Size comparison between nanoclusters and nanoparticles

Figure 7. Stabilizers for nanoclusters

Figure 8. Nanotechnology-based practical applications

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