Enhancing consumer participation in the context of sport events: The power of three basic psychological needs

Figures & data

Figure 1. Proposed model for CP’s drivers

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of all items.

Variables	Mean	Std. Deviation	Skewness	Kurtosis
Physical1: I was physically active in this event	4.39	2.056	−0.254	−1.198
Physical2: I cooperated with others in this event	4.46	1.950	−0.337	−0.938
Physical3: I used a lot of energy at this event	4.74	1.829	−0.409	−0.809
Cognitive1: I have paid attention to how others behave during this event	4.95	1.656	−0.530	−0.308
Cognitive2: I asked other people about their opinions regarding this event	4.06	1.799	−0.171	−0.788
Cognitive3: I was involved in conversations and shared information with other people at the event	4.72	1.701	−0.370	−0.535
Cognitive4: I shared my opinion about this event with others	5.18	1.688	−0.841	0.137
Emotional1: For me, being at this event was fun	6.04	1.430	−1.741	2.687
Emotional2: I was enthusiastic about this event	6.02	1.340	−1.590	2.385
Emotional3: I enjoyed participating in this event	6.18	1.180	−1.722	3.170
Social1: I was friendly toward other people at this event	6.13	1.086	−1.193	0.901
Social2: I respected other people at this event	6.13	1.140	−1.320	1.411
Social3: I did not act rudely at this event	6.30	1.019	−1.720	3.641
Autonomy1: I felt a sense of choice and freedom to do things in this event	5.54	1.564	−1.023	0.488
Autonomy2: I felt free to be who I really am at this event	5.88	1.356	−1.285	1.263
Autonomy3: I felt I have been doing what really interests me in this event	5.76	1.407	−0.970	0.148
Competence1: I felt confident by participating in this event	5.29	1.554	−0.668	−0.137
Competence2: I felt capable by participating in this event	5.22	1.472	−0.290	−0.799
Competence3: I felt effective by participating in this event	5.25	1.463	−0.449	−0.504
Relatedness1: I did not feel lonely during this event	6.06	1.347	−1.694	2.784
Relatedness2: I felt close and connected with other people in this event	5.81	1.328	−0.936	0.120
Relatedness3: I experienced togetherness with others in this event	5.87	1.320	−1.030	0.411
Revisit- How likely would you return to this event?	5.82	1.594	−1.298	0.989
Recommend1: I will recommend this event to other people (e.g., your family, friends).	6.09	1.311	−1.723	2.980
Recommend2: I will say positive things about this event to other people.	6.29	1.069	−1.663	2.794

Table 2. Competing models testing.

Hypotheses	Estimate path
	Proposed model	Rival model 1	Rival Model 2
Autonomy→participation	0.516***	–	–
Competence→participation	0.056	–	–
Relatedness→participation	0.419***	–	–
participation→behavioral intention	0.654***	–	–
Autonomy→physical	–	−0.120	–
Autonomy→cognitive	–	−0.146	–
Autonomy→emotional	–	0.650***	–
Autonomy→social	–	0.452**	–
Competence→physical	–	0.367***	–
Competence→cognitive	–	0.273*	–
Competence→emotional	–	−0.044	–
Competence→social	–	−0.227*	–
Relatedness→physical	–	0.370**	–
Relatedness→cognitive	–	0.510***	–
Relatedness→emotional	–	0.231*	–
Relatedness→social	–	0.358*	–
physical→behavioral intention	–	0.091	–
cognitive→behavioral intention	–	0.126	–
emotional→behavioral intention	–	0.432***	–
social→behavioral intention	–	0.108	–
physical→behavioral intention	–	–	0.027
Psychological→behavioral intention	–	–	1.260***
Autonomy→physical	–	–	−0.085
Autonomy→psychological	–	–	0.296***
Competence→physical	–	–	0.474***
Competence→psychological	–	–	−0.006
Relatedness→physical	–	–	0.542**
Relatedness→psychological	–	–	0.269***
Control variables
Attending frequency→participation	−0.016
Age→participation	−0.047
Gender→participation	−0.026
Residency→participation	0.02
Attending Status→participation	−0.047
Model Fits	Proposed model	Rival model 1	Rival model 2
Chi-square (df)	476.882 (241)	454.358 (233)	585.484 (238)
(Chi-square /df)	1.98	1.95	2.46
RMSEA	0.055	0.054	0.068
CFI	0.923	0.928	0.921
TLI	0.912	0.915	0.909
SRMR	0.067	0.066	0.068
N = 452; *p < 0.05 ; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

Table 3. Comparative results among two countries/events.

Hypotheses	Estimate path
Event (place)	Ski-flying (Vikersund)	Ski-flying (Planica)
Autonomy→participation	0.551**	0.237
Competence→participation	−0.008	0.242
Relatedness→participation	0.459**	0.514***
participation→behavioral intention	0.507***	0.808***

* p < 0.05 ; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

Table A1. Demographic information of the respondents.

Sample (%) (N = 320)	Vikersund (Ski-flying)	Planica (Ski-flying)
N	196	124
Gender (%)
Male	44%	43%
Female	53%	51%
Others	3%	6%
Age (mean: 37)
≤25	40%	18%
26–35	14%	33%
36–45	17%	18%
46–55	16%	9%
56+	13%	22%
Occupation
Student	32%	21%
Full-time employee	51%	68%
Part-time employee	2%	2%
Unemployed	3%	3%
Retired	8%	3%
Others	4%	4%
Type of participant
Tourist	55%	56%
Resident	45%	44%
Familiarity with the event
First time	50%	28%
1–3 times	36%	36%
3+	14%	36%
Participation status
Participating with company	85%	86%
Participating alone	15%	14%
Survey language
English	11%	–
Norwegian	89%	–

Table A2. Exploratory factor analysis: sample (N = 320).

Factors and items	Factor loadings	Variance explained (%)	Cronbach’s alpha
Physical participation		5.16	0.809
Physical1	0.850
Physical2	0.807
Physical3	0.745
Cognitive participation		4.02	0.751
Cognitive2	0.868
Cognitive3	0.769
Cognitive4	0.568
Emotional participation		38.4	0.873
Emotional3	0.800
Emotional2	0.778
Emotional1	0.737
Social participation		7.5	0.866
Social3	0.874
Social2	0.830
Social1	0.806
Autonomy		3.04	0.849
Autonomy1	0.798
Autonomy2	0.672
Autonomy3	0.511
Competence		8.9	0.860
Competence2	0.849
Competence1	0.777
Competence3	0.772
Relatedness		4.8	0.819
Relatedness1	0.820
Relatedness2	0.748
Relatedness3	0.655
Behavioral intention		5.9	0.840
Recommend1	0.869
Revisit	0.839
Recommend2	0.697

Table A3. Confirmatory factor analysis: sample (n = 320).

Factors and items	Standardized loading	CR	AVE
Physical participation		0.810	0.587
Physical1	0.785
Physical3	0.777
Physical2	0.735
Cognitive participation		0.772	0.535
Cognitive3	0.856
Cognitive4	0.720
Cognitive2	0.596
Emotional participation		0.880	0.711
Emotional2	0.871
Emotional3	0.870
Emotional1	0.785
Social participation		0.868	0.688
Social3	0.852
Social2	0.838
Social1	0.797
Autonomy		0.854	0.661
Autonomy2	0.858
Autonomy3	0.818
Autonomy1	0.760
Competence		0.863	0.678
Competence2	0.850
Competence3	0.811
Competence1	0.809
Relatedness		0.823	0.609
Relatedness2	0.840
Relatedness3	0.811
Relatedness1	0.681
Behavioral intention		0.863	0.679
Recommend1	0.909
Recommend2	0.798
Revisit	0.757

Table A4. Discriminant validity.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1.Emotional	0.843^a
2.Social	.441**	0.829^a
3.Physical	.317**	.317**	0.766^a
4.Cognitive	.378**	.338**	.437**	0.732^a
5.Behavioral Intention	.509**	.340**	.279**	.301**	0.824^a
6.Autonomy	.677**	.477**	.289**	.310**	.474**	0.813^a
7.Competence	.456**	.259**	.431**	.402**	.390**	.578**	0.824^a
8.Relatedness	.533**	.431**	.353**	.398**	.494**	.592**	.521**	0.780^a

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

^a Square root of AVE